Julio-Claudians: HISTORICAL PERIOD Flashcards
Tiberius and the senate from Tacitus.
Election of magistrates transferred from comitia (people) to Senate
• Tried to encourage Senate to become significant legislative body
• Not as social as Augustus stiff, serious
Tiberius and the senate from Seutonius.
Replaced consilium of Augustus with a council made up of his friends and 20 other chosen senators – to advise on administrative matters
• Consulted Senate on national revenue, building programs, military commands and foreign policy
• Always entered Senate House without escort, and rose to greet the consuls respect
• Senate offered him titles and honours but Tiberius refused following Augustus
• Judicial role of Senate expanded made responsible for trying provincial officials and those charged with maiestas (treason)
• Delay in succession
Wanted Senate to give him power
• Early: attended meetings and listened to Senators
Tiberius and the senate from Cassius Dio
Later: Became frustrated with the Senate became annoyed of their services that he commented that they were
“Men fit to be slaves” – Tacitus
• AD 26: Tiberius retired to Capri left Senate in unstable state
• “Incapable of operating as a serious deliberative body”
- Levick
Gaius and the senate.
- Initially on good terms with Senate
- Won popularity with Senate when abolished charges of maiestas, put end to use of informers and recalled senators exiled in Tiberius reign
- Concerned with welfare of Senators allowing them to sit on cushions at shows instead of bare boards
Gaius and the senate with Cassius Dio.
At first: treated Senate with great respect and promised to share power with it
Gaius and the senate with seutonius.
• Suetonius
Following illness in AD37
Gaius grew erratic and gradually alienated and humiliated senators
Made senators run beside his chariot dressed in their togas
Alston: supports this argument
Planned to give his horse consulship
Alston: argues insulted Senate with horse
Gaius goes mean, relationship with senate then?
- Treated senate with disrespect assumed increase God-like powers that elevated the principate to a near dictatorship
- Changed principate shifted focus of power away from Senate to Emperor
- Removed Senate’s authority in foreign affairs
- Transferred right to conduct elections back to comitia diminished responsibility of the Senate
- AD 38: Relationship with Senate broke down when reintroduced treason trials against senators
- Removed Senate’s right to mint coins
- Executed any Senators who offered him advice
- After conspiracy AD39 Senators became fearful that Gaius would suspect them of plotting against him granted him more honours
- Senators involved in plot to kill Gaius Vinicianius, Valerius Asiaticus and Longinus
Barrett says what about Gaius and the senate?
senate “must bear responsibility for the massive grant of powers they made to Caligula”
Claudius and the senate??
- Secured initial relations with Senate by pardoning conspirators in Gaius’ assassination
- Proclaimed Emperor by Praetorian Guard instead of senators reputation criticised by Senators e.g. Seneca
- Respected dignity of the Senate
Claudius and the senate by Josephus
After Gaius assassination, Senate debated whether to restore to a republic wanted to gain former prestige
Levick says what of Claudius and the senate?
Claudius inflicted deep wound in Senate’s authority
more senatus consulta passed in Claudius’ reign than in that of any other princeps
Claudius tried to do what with the senate?
• Tried to win favour of the Senate recalling exiles, repealing Gaius’ laws and granting consulships to those who wished for a return to the republic
Displayed courtesy and respect to the Senate
Held banquets for senators and their wives
Restored right to mint coins
Tacitus and Claudius and the senate?
Encouraged Senate to take responsibilities seriously as a forum for discussion and for passing legislation
Senators had become hostile to him due to his extensive/formalised use of Freedmen such as Pallas, Narcissus and Polybius
• Claudius kept most administrative information to himself and his assistants Senate felt he was ignorant of their position
• Charge of imperial policy taken away from Senate and given to procurators
Dio Cassius and Claudius’s senate.
AD41: abolished charge of maiestas but later restored it
many tries were held in palace or in Senate with freedmen and prefects
accepted all titles and honours at beginning of reign
Nero’s Senate by Tacitus.
Initially treated Senate respectfully and promised them more autonomy
Supported Senate’s laws and proclamations until Great Fire of Rome in AD 64
Senate able to debate freely
Nero’s senate basic details.
• Initially good relationship influenced by Seneca and Burrus
Seneca assisted Nero in establishing a working relationship with Senate
• Promised to reverse unpopular measures introduced by Claudius
Promised senate would return to original function, no treason trials, control of freedmen, not conduct all business like Claudius & would model Augustus in his reign
• Restored responsibility Criminal cases tried in Senatorial court
• Initially rejected offers of statues and titles
• Coins issued on authority of Senate
• After death of Agrippina in AD59, Burrus in AD62 and Seneca’s retirement diminished relationship with Senate
Nero’s senate with Suetonius.
Made Senators and knights do battle in the arena of public shows
• As reign progressed neglected imperial duties over interest in poetry, music and drama
appeared disinterested in discussing state matters
• Treason trials revived by Tigellinus (Praetorian Prefect) number of senators and wealthy people murdered
Intention to wipe out senatorial order (Suetonius)
• AD 65: Gaius Calpurnius Piso (Roman statesman) organised conspiracy against Nero
Seneca implicated and made to commit suicide
• Fire created revenue crisis led to clashes between Senate over taxes
• AD68: Nero declared public enemy
Political Reforms of Tiberius:
- Judicial control of “treason” given to Senate
- Election of magistrates given to Senate
- Freedom of debate discouraged
- Made Senate court of law for cases involving Senators and equestrians
Social Reforms of Tiberius
- Tried to raise prestige of Senate by adhering to Republican traditions
- Gave money to noble families who were dying out continuing Augustus’ tradition
- Morality priority
- Maintained public order in Rome and Italy
- Discouraged games and spectacles
- Provided relief for victims of fires and natural disasters
Legal Reforms of Tiberius
- Corrupt officials discharged
- Taxes
- Confiscation and executions discouraged
- Dealt with issues with citizens in law courts
Religious Reforms of Tiberius.
- Abolished foreign cults (Inc. Egyptian gods)
- AD19 Cult of Isis persecuted after disturbances in Rome
- Jewish men of military age removed from Rome
- Astrologers banned
- Did not encourage Emperor worship
- Rejected provincial requests to build temples for him
- Created Augustales: priesthood established to maintain cult of Augustus
Administrative Reforms of Tiberius.
ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS
• Dio Cassius
Significantly improved Rome’s revenue
• Aid given to provinces
• New road system in Gaul and Spain
• Kept efficient governors and procurators in office longer
• Reduced sales tax from 1% to 0.5%
• Strictly controlled finances left a large surplus in treasury when he died
• Senate encouraged to choose its own governors for senatorial provinces
• Protection of provincials
• Scullard: “excellent”
Political Reforms of Gaius.
• Dio Cassius
Transferred right to conduct elections back to comitia
• (Refer to BAD Relationship with Senate)
Social Reforms of Gaius
Recalled exiles from Tiberius and Augustus’ reign
• Encouraged integration of previously banned texts into publication and open debates
• Expelled perverts
• Dio Cassius
Allowed new members into equestrian and senatorial orders
• Revived gladiatorial games
Legal Reforms of Gaius
- Published accounts of public funds which had not been published during Tiberius’ reign
- Discouraged treason trials
- Provocative foreign policy weakened Rome’s position in the East
- Josephus: Persecution of provincial Jews
- Revived treason trials
Religious reforms of Gaius
- Deified himself created religious disorder in Rome
- Eastern cults and mysticism encouraged
- AD38 Deification of sister Drusilla as goddess
- Divinity of Princeps emphasised temples built
Administrative reforms of Gaius.
- Completed building programs neglected by Tiberius – Temple of Augustus and Pompey’s Theatre
- Abolished heavy sales tax
- Inefficient and inconsistent
- Established heavy taxes after Tiberius’ surpluses are spent in the first 12 months of Gaius’ reign
- Large payments demanded for entry to the College of Priests
- Treason trials: control the wealth of the Senators
- Most historians agree that he destroyed Rome’s finances
Political Reforms of Claudius
- Added provincials to the Senate
- Used Senate as advisory board
- Took Senate’s administrative role away from it and gave it to Freedmen each responsible for particular area of governing
- Negative: Held many proceedings in private diminished responsibility of Senate
Social Reforms of Claudius.
- Extended citizenship to many groups & colonies
- Suetonius: Celebrated secular games in AD47
- Restored many Roman public venues
Legal Reforms of Claudius
- Created more government departments improved efficiency
- Extended summer court session
- Suetonius: equitable and just laws gave rights to slaves at Temple of Asclepius (god of medicine, healing)
- Assumed office of Censor tried to restore idea of citizenship and responsibility
- Increased speed of judicial hearings
Religious reforms of Claudius
- Restored traditional Roman religious practice
- Outlawed foreign influences
- Banned the Druid religion (Celtic)
- Appointment of state priests
Administrative reforms of Claudius
Extended empire – invaded Britain AD43
• Public work programs e.g. Harbour at Ostia
• Josephus
Affirmed rights and freedom of Jews in the Empire
• Consuls placed in charge of orphans
• Gave administrative powers to freedmen e.g. Pallas control over empire’s financial affairs
• Established imperial procurators to control:
Inheritance tax, senate finances
Political Reforms of Nero
- Excluded sons of freedmen from Senate
- Annual salaries given to “impoverished but distinguished” senators
- Worked with the Senate: AD59 Amphitheatre in Pompeii closed for 10 years due to riots
- Did not hear cases intra cubiculum principis (in the bedroom of the princeps)
Social reforms of Nero
- Made knights and senators fight in public games
- Enacted sumptuary laws to restrain public luxury
- Christians persecuted
Legal Reforms of Nero
- Abolition of capital punishment
- Slaves permitted to take legal action against masters
- Gave military commands to unsuccessful candidates
Religious reforms of Nero
Portrayed himself as the sun god in the Golden House erected after Great Fire of Rome AD64
Administrative reforms of Nero
- Successful administration through confidants Seneca and Burrus
- Finances
- AD56: Control of treasury taken from quaestors and given to imperial praefecti
- Grain supply made secure under Faenius Rufus
- AD58 established free trade by removing taxes – BUT was dropped
- Mint system precious metal content reduced so he could spend lavishly on games
Praetorian Guard
• Elite military force formed by Augustus
• Nine cohorts, each of 500 commanded by two equestrian prefects
• Role: protect Princeps and his family in Rome and on campaign
Carried letters between Princeps and governor
Detention and execution of prisoners
Eventually played important role in succession of emperors
Privileges of the Praetorian Guard
• Privileges over other soldiers:
No active military service unless accompanying the Princeps
Higher pay & bonuses
Shorter term of service
Tiberius and Praetorian Guard. ‘Sejanus’
• SEJANUS AD 14-31 - Appointed as single commander
Made the most of position
Formed close relationship with Tiberius
Played prominent role in government, esp. after Tiberius’ retirement to Capri
– Acted as intermediary between Tiberius and Senate
– Controlled access to Tiberius
– Senators resented this high level of control
Tacitus: suggests had eye on principate
Played important role in imperial politics
Took part in murders of Drusus (AD23), Agrippina the Elder (AD29) and her sons Nero (AD31) and Drusus (AD33)
Desired to marry Livilla BUT Tiberius refused
Betrothed to Julia in AD31
Responsible for majority of treason trials
Tiberius’ retirement to Capri AD26 – controlled flow of information between Rome and empire
Extremely loyal to Tiberius
When Tiberius realised the amount of power he had gained, he had him removed and killed
Tiberius and the Praetorian Guard ‘Macro’
• MACRO AD 31-38
Vital role in denouncing Sejanus
Looked after Tiberius’ interests in Rome
Tacitus: Macro killed Tiberius in AD 37
Gaius and the Praetorian Guard?
• MACRO AD 31-38
Hailed Gaius as new Princeps and accompanied him back to Rome
Helped Gaius in gaining senatorial approval
AD38 – removed and later forced to commit suicide
Claudius and the Praetorian Guard ‘Crispinus and Geta’
• CRISPINUS & GETA AD 43-50
Crucial in securing Claudius’ accession
Claudius commemorated their role in his succession annually with gladiatorial games in the Praetorian camp
Claudius and the Praetorian Guard ‘Burrus’
Agrippina replaced joint commanders with single commander
Distinguished soldier – Agrippina valued loyalty
Nero and the Praetorian Guard.
• BURRUS AD 50-62
Appointed by Agrippina to ensure Nero’s smooth succession
Supported Agrippina during reign of Claudius
May have assisted in the murder of Britannicus (AD55)
Ran empire alongside Seneca (54-62): improved finances, food supply, transport, aid programs, Veteran colonies and taxation policy
Tiberius and the political role with the army.
• Had long and successful military career before Princeps
• Troops hailed him as imperator several times and celebrated triumphs in Rome
• Apart from rebellion early in reign by troops in Pannonia and Germany over pay and conditions Army remained loyal to Tiberius
• Main political role: safeguard the frontiers
• Tacitus: 9 Roman legions along the Rhine (3 in Spain, 2 in Africa and Egypt, 4 in the East)
• Army began to play role on the events within Rome
Played part in downfall of Sejanus
• Griffin: reliable military leadership
Gaius and the political role with the army.
- Role: maintain borders of empire established by Augustus and consolidated by Tiberius
- Apart from conspiracy of Gaetulicus (AD39), army remained loyal to Gaius After Gaetulicus’ execution, rewarded soldiers 100 denarii each for not supporting conspiracy
- Popular with army son of Germanicus
- Spent early years in army camp given nickname Caligula for miniature army uniforms
Claudius and his political role with the Army.
- Claudius came from military family: brother Germanicus, uncle Tiberius and father Nero Drusus
- Army gained honour from Claudius’ expansion of empire
- Remained loyal to him
- Role: Romanisation construction of roads and bridges, settlement of veterans’ colonies
- Claudius emphasised military image through coins, statues and buildings
- Army well disciplined and content during Claudius’ reign
Nero and his political role with the Army.
• Political Role: dealing with troubles in empire
• Prominent military commanders Corbulo, Rufus & Proculus governors of Upper and Lower Germany condemned and forced to commit suicide after conspiracy of Piso
• Army’s revolt against Nero staged by Julius Vindex (Governor of Gaul)
Galba revolted in Spain
Macer and legion in Africa turned against Nero
Legions in Germany & Praetorian Guard withdrew support
Nero forced to commit suicide
Impact of the death of Augustus?
• Died AD 14 • Upheaval and uncertainty in Rome • Tiberius delays succession which causes confusion • Senate conflict • Tiberius reluctant to accept princeps • Augustus had restored the republic • Problems of Succession: o Time and again his heirs would die o Did not have sons of his own o Grandsons Lucius and Gaius left o Died o Who was left? Stepsons Tiberius and Drusus as potential heirs o He was a Claudian, not a Julian o Tacitus: Reluctance apparently not sincere
Princeps?
first among equals
• Established by Augustus
• Look after Rome as a father figure
Changing role of the princeps under the Julio-Claudian rulers: Tiberius’s changes to role?
• Maintained Augustan principles
• Excellent civil administrator
Reduced spending on public buildings and games
Chose officials carefully
Maintained pax romana
• Attempted to work with the Senate and maintain its traditional rights
• Made many government decisions
• Controlled empire through loyal and efficient armies
• Tacitus: consulted Senate on every issue
Changing role of the princeps under the Julio-Claudian rulers: Gaius changes to role?
• Acquired many powers
• Expected to be treated as a God with absolute and unreasonable authority
• Alienated and humiliated the Senate
• Acted brutally and with vengeance
• Invoked fear and panic in the Roman people
• Changed principate shifted focus of power away from Senate to Emperor
• Established a radical system of absolute power
• Alston
Senate is republican holds values of being a Roman citizen
Trying to manage between monarchy and republic
Changing role of the princeps under the Julio-Claudian rulers: Claudius changes to role?
- Efficient and humane administrator
- Introduced good social legislation that reflected his duty to care for the people, esp. slaves, women and minors
- Provided utilities, entertainment and justice
- Not originally connected to army BUT became successful military leader and extended empire
- Centralised bureaucracy: appointed freedmen to specific roles (angered the Senate)
- Expanded imperial powers diminished role of the Senate
- Followed Augustus revived connection to Republic
Changing role of the princeps under the Julio-Claudian rulers: Nero changes to role?
- Young when succeeded ruled through Agrippina, Seneca and Burrus
- Not interested in administration of Rome and Empire allowed freedmen and others to manage
- Hosted more artistic events
- Spent excessively and reduced treasury surplus
- Used position to satisfy himself
- Neglected the army
Changing image to princeps: Tiberius
• Tacitus:
Cruel and sinister
Tyrant
• Paterculus:
Positive image
Praises military achievements and administrative skills
• Coinage: stresses loyalty to Augustus, legitimacy of succession and honours that formed basis of power
• Statues and busts: show facial features and hairstyles similar to Augustus
• Various surviving inscriptions around the empire suggest Tiberius took duties seriously and was greatly appreciated by provincials
Changing image to princeps: Gaius
• Suetonius & Dio Cassius – DO NOT MENTION TACITUS (WRITINGS HAVEN’T SURVIVED)
Crazy and cruel
Associated himself with gods, esp. Jupiter
• Coinage and Statues: used to convey political messages
Stresses link to Augustus, Germanicus & Agrippina the Elder
Few statues remain as they were destroyed after assassination
Emphasises link to sisters in coin:
Changing image to princeps: Claudius
• Tacitus & Suetonius:
Paranoid, unskilful fool
Easily manipulated by his wives and freedmen
• Modern historians: (DIFFERENT IMAGE TO ANCIENT SOURCES)
Intelligent and able administrator with a concern for justice
• Coinage:
Early coinage stresses family connections (father Nero Drusus and brother Germanicus and military victories)
Depicted mother Antonia and grandmother Livia who were given the title ‘Augusta’
Used to legitimise succession: coin depicting role of Praetorian guard
Changing image to princeps: Nero
• Tacitus, Suetonius & Dio Cassius
Strong taste for the arts
Cruel, sexually deprived, reckless extravagance
• Persecution of Christians shaped bad image of Nero
• Coinage:
Shows interest in artistic side of Roman coinage – showing his titles
– Emphasises link to Augustus
– Propaganda commemorating settlement with Armenia and Parthia
– Nero addressing Praetorian Guard
– Performer: lyre player on the reverse of a coin
Shotter: suggests Nero’s pride can be seen in coins where he wears a crown of rays (symbol of deification)
First decade: show devotion to Claudius and Agrippina the Younger
• Statues: few statues remain, would have been destroyed after death and damnation
Whats the significance of building programs?
• Propaganda:
Aqueducts – show concerns for providing needs to plebeians
New buildings and continual structure in Rome – prestige and reminded citizens Rome was the centre of the empire
• Religion:
Repairing old temples or building new ones connected Julio-Claudian emperors to traditional values and the Republic
Temple to the Imperial Cult reinforced emperor’s power in the provinces
• Employment:
Capital works in Rome provided employment for the poor – emperor became benefactor increased loyalty
• Pleasure and Leisure
Theatres, stadiums and baths – centre of Roman leisure
Building programs and Tiberius?
• Provided employment and contributed to civil pride
• Not aimed at personal glorification
• Tacitus:
Compares unfavourably to Augustus’ building programs
Building programs = “far from extravagant”
• Suetonius:
“while emperor he constructed no magnificent works”
• Temple of Augustus: didn’t finish
• Pompey’s Theatre
• Replaced buildings destroyed by fire on Caecilian Hill AD26
• Completed temples in Egypt Temple of Hathor
• Cassius Dio:
speaks highly of his “public works”
Building programs and Gaius?
• Spent a lot on public buildings: Expansion of Imperial Palace Circus of Nero and Gaius Aqueducts: Aqua Novo and Aqua Claudia Egyptian obelisk in Rome Repaired roads around empire Puteoli Floating Bridge Temple of Lake Nemi • Josephus: Main public work: renovations of harbour at Rhegium
Building programs and Claudius?
• Reflects concerns of his administration
• Completed aqueducts begun by Gaius
• Roads and canals built throughout Italy and the provinces
Road from Italy to Germany
Canal from the Rhine to the sea
Built canal along Tiber – regulate flow of river and prevent flooding
• Suetonius:
Attempted to drain the Pontine Marshes – increase land mass
Employed 30 000 men for 11 years
Building programs and Nero?
• Finished Claudius’ harbour works at Ostia
• Extended Rome’s aqueduct system
• Completed civic buildings in Rome i.e. baths, macellum and gymnasium
• Nero’s passion for theatre reflected in building programs
New theatre on Campus Martius
Stone theatres throughout Italy
• After Great Fire AD 64:
Introduced building regulations (height restrictions and distance between buildings to prevent fire spreading)
• Most extravagant: Golden House (Domus Aurea)
more than 1.5km long
Luxurious rooms, statue of himself, gardens and pools
Garzetti: “public expression of his power”
name the Imperial family that caused problems of succession
Livia, Julia, Germanicus, Agrippina the Elder, Messalina, Agrippina the Younger
Tiberius and Imperial Family and Problems of Succession
• Agrippa’s sons Gaius Caesar and Lucius Caesar were first in line
Adopted by Augustus in 17 BC
Died – so left Tiberius as only one left (related through wife Livia as stepson)
• Tacitus: Augustus adopted Tiberius in AD 4
Personality not fit for emperor: “cruel temper”
• Suetonius: Augustus’ will “Since fate has cruelly carried off my sons Gaius and Lucius, Tiberius Caesar is to inherit two-thirds of my property”
• Livia
Vital in securing Tiberius’ succession – mother
Suetonius: planned to “exterminate all the male offspring of Augustus by his daughter Julia”
AD 36 coin Livia’s prominent role in succession
• Julia
Tiberius forced to divorce Vispania Agrippina and marry Augustus’ daughter Julia
Marriage connected him to Julian line gained political favour with Augustus
Gaius and Imperial Family and Problems of Succession
• Suetonius
AD 4: Augustus compelled Tiberius to adopt Germanicus (to ensure G’s succession – even though he already had a son Drusus)
AD 19: Germanicus died
“Tiberius now placed Drusus next to the throne”
• AD 23: Drusus died
• Death of Tiberius’ heirs – significant influenced Tiberius to choose Gaius as heir
• AD 37: Before death Tiberius had not made decision of heir
Named grandson Tiberius Gemellus & Gaius as co-heirs
Up to Senate to make decision
Gaius was favourite as son of Germanicus
- Played prominent role in succession
- Reason for Senate’s decision to name Gaius as heir over Gemellus
- Coin depicting Gaius and Germanicus
• Alston: “Gaius’ claim for the imperial position rested solely on his birth”
AD 38 Coin depicting sisters Agrippina the Younger, Drusilla and Livilla
• Agrippina the Elder
Gave strong connection to Julian line – granddaughter of Augustus
Claudius and Imperial Family and Problems of Succession
• Suetonius & Dio Cassius
• AD 37: Gaius named sister Drusilla as heir but died in AD 38
• AD 41: Assassination of Gaius
Discord in Rome – between Senate (wanted return to Republic) and Praetorian Guard
• After Gaius’ death Claudius feared he would be assassinated too
Suetonius: hid in palace on Palatine Hill
Praetorian Guard found him recognised him as brother of Germanicus
Made him emperor at Praetorian camp
• Dio Cassius: “he was of the imperial family and was regarded as suitable”
• Germanicus
Influenced Praetorian Guard’s decision
Highly respected general
Brother of Claudius
Nero and Imperial Family and Problems of Succession
• Suetonius
• Barrett: role of family lineage – “grandson of Germanicus”
• Agrippina the Younger
Mother
Constantly worked to secure succession
AD 47: Clash between Agrippina and Messalina (Claudius’ wife)
– Wanted her and Claudius’ son Britannicus as emperor
– Suetonius: Messalina attempted to murder Nero
– AD 48 – Death allowed Agrippina to continue with plan
Agrippina married Claudius in AD 48
Salmon - AD 50: Claudius adopts Nero significant in securing Nero’s succession
Betrothal of Nero to Octavia (Claudius’ daughter) further secure succession
AD 54: Agrippina supposedly murders Claudius with poisoned mushrooms
– Nero immediately succeeds to power
– Statue: Agrippina crowning Nero role in succession
Coin depicting Nero and Agrippina confronting each other
• Nero had support of Praetorian Prefect Burrus – took him to Praetorian Barracks where he was hailed as imperator importance of Praetorian Guard in the political sphere of Rome
Whats the consequences of Nero’s death?
• Dio Cassius:
March AD 68: Vindex (Governor of Gaul) rebelled against Nero’s tax policies
Vindex called on Galba (Governor of Hispania/Spain) to join rebellion and call himself Emperor in opposition to Nero
• Nero fled Rome forced to commit suicide June AD 68 no plan for succession
• Instability in Rome decision of succession left up to Senate and people of Rome
• Praetorian prefects continually fired
• Period of civil war before Year of the Four Emperors June 68-December 69
• End of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty – Year of the Four Emperors – Flavian Dynasty
Whats the role and contribution of Seneca?
• Successful orator and writer
• Interest in philosophy
• Became a quaestor and senator BUT banished by Messalina
Spent 8 years in exile in Corsica
• Agrippina recalled Seneca to tutor Nero in rhetoric may have asked him to teach Nero the skills he required to become Princeps
• Nero’s accession Seneca = amicus principis friend of the Princeps (not official position)
Drafted Nero’s early speeches to Senate
Influenced Nero heavily in his early year as Princeps
Wrote many pieces depicting Nero in a positive light
• Seneca became wealthy criticised for making too much profit from his position
• After Agrippina’s death Seneca found hard to exert positive influence on Nero
Asked to retire in AD 62 when Burrus died but Nero refused eventually withdrew due to illness
• Tigellinus (new Praetorian Prefect) became stronger influence on Nero
Tacitus: “Nero found his unending immoralities and evil reputation fascinating”
• Seneca forced to commit suicide for alleged involvement in Pisonian conspiracy (Tacitus says he was innocent)
When was the year of the four emperors?
AD 69
Year of the Four emperors, ‘Galba’ give a description.
• 71 when became Princeps
• Beginning - Had support of Senate BUT had trouble establishing authority over Rhine regions and did not win support of Praetorian Guard
• Strong disciplinarian resented (esp. by legions that supported Vindex)
• Removed Verginius Rufus from command of Rhine armies replaced with commanders who didn’t succeed in gaining control of legions
• Refused to make donative to Praetorian Guard
• Beginning of AD 69 German legions mutinied and turned to Vitellius
• 15 January AD 69: Otho gained support of Praetorians
Galba was killed – supporters fled Rome
• Alston: main political weakness failure to win loyalty of troops
Year of the Four emperors, ‘Otho’ give a description.
• Secured loyalty of troops Italy, Rome, Danube and in the east
• Pardoned Galba’s supporters, restored many of Nero’s freedmen and procurators
Gain support of opponents and restored stability
• Vitellius led army from Lower Germany towards Rome
April AD 69 – Otho confronted Vitellius in battle of Cremona
Otho’s army was defeated and Otho commited suicide
Year of the Four emperors, ‘Vitellius’ give a description.
• Defeated Otho Senate made him Princeps
• Tried to win support of senatorial class difficult to establish authority
• Suetonius: Failed to control troops looted Italian towns & misused public funds
• Military position not secure didn’t have eastern legions on side
• In the East (Egypt, Judea and Syria) commanders began to rebel against Vitellius named Vespasian as their Princeps
• Vespasian commissioned by Nero in AD 67 to deal with Great Jewish Revolt went to Egypt to cut grain supply to Rome
Forces invaded Italy
Claimed emperor in Alexandria and by Danube army
• Vitellius wanted to resign troops wouldn’t allow
• Vespasian’s troops entered Rome AD 69 Vitellius killed
Year of the Four emperors, ‘Vespasian’ give a description.
- Victory over Vitellius Senate recognised as Princeps on 21 December
- Start of Princeps (when entered Rome AD 70) confident as had support of both eastern and western provincial armies
- Began task of reconciliation and establishing political stability Rome had not seen for many years
- Established Flavian dynasty
Expansion and consolidation of the empire
- Expansion = to become larger
- Consolidation = make stronger
- Followed Augustus’ plan didn’t extend empire beyond boundaries he set
- New provinces added only province added by conquest was Britain
- Client kingdoms converted to provinces when kings died or got rid of
- Consolidation achieved through military, diplomatic and administrative measures
Expansion and consolidation of the empire (Tiberius)
- Followed Augustus’ policy didn’t expand empire
- Recalled Germanicus – ended German campaign
- Suppressed revolt in Gaul AD 21-22
- Appointed L. Vitellius as governor of Syria keep eye on unsettled Parthia
- Converted kingdom Cappadocia to province
- Sent Blaesus to defeat Tacfarinas
- Incorporated Cilicia into province of Syria
- Established Macedonia and Achaea as provinces
Expansion and consolidation of the empire (Gaius)
- Rhine frontier AD 39-40 wished to strengthen frontier
* Prepared army to invade Britain BUT failed
Expansion and consolidation of the empire (Claudius)
• Reversed Augustan policy extended empire by conquest of Britain AD 43
First expansion since Augustus
• Sent Corbulo to deal with raids from German tribes
• Placed pro-Roman king Mithridates on Armenian throne
• Provinces Thrace, Noricum, Pamphylia, Lycia and Judea annexed
• AD 44: Completed annexation of Mauretania (started by Gaius)
• AD 48: Conducted imperial census
Expansion and consolidation of the empire (Nero)
- Didn’t extend empire
- AD 58-63: Conducted war with Parthia
- Corbulo (Rmn General) arranged Armenia settlement where Tiridates was made king – had to receive crown from Nero in Rome
- AD 61: Boudicca revolt in Britain stopped by Paulinus (Rmn General)
- AD 66: Beginning of Judea war because of corruption and abuse of Roman officials eventually stopped by Vespasian
- Client kingdom Pontus incorporated into province Galatia
- Had to suppress revolts in western provinces over tax policies at end of reign
The relationship of the princeps and the army
- Army = basis of Julio-Claudian power
- Principate founded on supreme military power – maius imperium
- Army swore allegiance to emperor
- Army = main means of controlling the empire defended frontiers & controlled revolts and rebellions
- Responsible for Romanisation of the Empire construction of roads, aqueducts
- Loyal to Julio-Claudians until Nero removed army commanders (ended support)
The relationship of the princeps and the army (Tiberius)
• Maintained good relationship with Army, possibly because of military career
(20-7 BC)
• Led troops to victory in Armenia, Parthia, Ractia, Illyricum, Pannonia, Dalmatia
• Hailed imperator numerous times
• Mutinies in Pannonia & Germany (over conditions of army) sent Drusus and Germanicus
• Army defended frontiers and supressed revolts in Africa, Gaul & Thrace
• Loyal to Tiberius
• Tacitus: lack of auctoritas (authority) allowed increasing praetorian influence:
• Sejanus (Praetorian Prefect) prominent role in Tiberius’ reign
Loyal and efficient service
Tacitus: “Partner of my Labours”
Tacitus: “entire civil and military administration of the empire was now in Sejanus’ hands” Became sole consul after Tib. Retired to Capri
• Suetonius: Eventually, Macro gained power & may have encouraged Tiberius’ death
The relationship of the princeps and the army (Gaius)
- Good»_space;» bad relationship
- Hailed emperor by praetorians on Capri Macro took him to Senate where powers were conferred upon him
- Macro (Praetorian Guard) supported Gaius in eradicating Tiberius’
- Due to father Germanicus, had grown up among the troops named him ‘Caligula’
- Army adored father Germanicus & grandfather Drusus
- Cassius Dio: Planned two military campaigns to Germany & Britain sources confused about details
- Gaetulicus & Lepidus accused of conspiracy Gaet executed
- Praetorian Guard protected Gaius through conspiracy – became dependent on them
- Army remained loyal through erratic behaviour
- Suetonius: BUT assassinated by member of Praetorian Guard and Senate
The relationship of the princeps and the army (Claudius)
• Good relationship
• Praetorians vital in succession coin depicting Claudius at Praetorian Camp
• Held annual games in Praetorian camp
• Son of Drusus and brother of Germanicus popular in the army (despite lack of military experience)
• When Scribonius, governor of Dalmatia attempted to use troops to dismiss Claudius
Troops remained loyal Claudius awarded troops title ‘Claudian, Devoted and Loyal’
• Army won campaigns in Mauretania & Germany
• Conquest of Britain AD 43, 50,000 troops extension of empire strengthened reign
Awarded triumph, two arches & given name Britannicus
• Romanisation: Army built roads in Italy, Sardinia, Spain, Gaul, Rhine
• Established veterans’ colonies in Italy, Gaul, Mauretania, Thrace
The relationship of the princeps and the army (Nero)
• Good with Agrippina, Burrus & Seneca»_space;> Bad without them
• Claudius’ death Agrippina and Burrus arranged Praetorians to swear loyalty to Nero
• Owed position to Praetorian Guard
• Burrus kept Praetorians & Army loyal
• Paid praetorians donatives
• Suetonius: Showed little interest in army
Didn’t visit camps – didn’t undertake campaigns
Main contact – parades and spectacles
• Army had 2 campaigns in Armenia under command of Corbulo
• Britain continued Claudius’ expansion policy until Boudicca’s revolt AD 60
• Military led revolt against Nero (Vindex, Galba & Otho) wanted to depose Nero and install Galba as princeps
• Tigellinus less successful at keeping army happy Nero’s tax policies led to revolts in AD 68 led to Nero’s forced suicide
Administration of the empire by Dio Cassius?
• Imperial administration much more efficient than Republican system
Provided peace and stability
• Continued Augustus’ system Princeps controlled imperial provinces and Senate controlled senatorial provinces
Administration of the empire by Tacitus?
• Senatorial provinces = peaceful, required only one legion
• Imperial provinces recently conquered or in the process of, required more than one legion
Governor (legatus) chosen by and reported to Princeps not Senate
• Financial administration Procuratores - equestrians appointed by Princeps Assess and collect taxes
• Egypt – special province administered by equestrian appointed by Princeps
• Client kingdoms had own government but subject to Roman influence eventually annexed into empire as provinces
Administration of the empire by Seutonius?
• Some provinces had provincial councils made up of local representatives had no administrative role but could lodge complaints to governor or Princeps
• Italian towns had own administration with assemblies, councils and elected officials
Managed administration of justice & public works
E.g. Pompeii and Herculaneum
• Romans roads, camps and towns strengthened defence & peace
Flat tax rate, freedom of movement and coinage – encouraged trade & commerce
Increased prosperity of empire
Development of Imperial Bureaucracy (Tiberius)
• Paid close attention to administration of provinces
• Reorganised administration of east 3 client kings died
Cappadocia & Commagene made provinces
Cilicia incorporated into Syria
• Strengthened frontiers of South-eastern Europe
Combined senatorial provinces Achaea & Macedonia with Moesia – into imperial province under single commander Sabinus
• Assisted victims of natural disaster 12 cities Asia Minor hit by earthquake – gave aid and exempted from tax for 5 years
Development of Imperial Bureaucracy (Gaius)
- Administration = erratic & clumsy
- Made Commagene, Pontus, Lesser Armenia & part of Thrace into client kingdoms
- Deposed king of Armenia
- Killed king of Mauretania sparked rebellion
- Disregard for Judaism sparked disturbance in Judea & Alexandria
Development of Imperial Bureaucracy (Claudius)
- Suetonius: Attentive to imperial administration
- Established veterans colonies
- Promoted organisation of Latin communities
- Extended Roman citizenship to non-Italians
- Promoted some citizens of Gaul to Senate
- Improved harbours, roads, water supply and communal administration in Italy
Development of Imperial Bureaucracy (Nero)
- Showed little interest in imperial administration except for Greece interested in drama
- Most provinces well administered in early years influence of Agrippina, Burrus & Seneca
- Provincial governors tried for corruption
- Veterans colonies established in Italy
- Greece exempted from taxation
Who are the important freedmen?
Narcissus and Pallas
Role of Narcissus?
- Until Agrippina Most powerful of all freedmen
- Cassius Dio extremely wealthy (400 million sesterces)
- Suetonius provided wealth to Claudius
- Wrote many letters gave control of external communication received by Claudius
- Suppressed mutiny prior to Claudius’ invasion of Britain
- Vital in death of Silanus & AD 48 downfall of Messalina
- Tacitus: During Messalina plot: given command of Praetorian Guard
- Loyal to needs of Princeps
- Claudius granted him emblem of ornamenta-questoria
- AD 54 Defends Domitia Lepida against charges brought against her by Agrippina’s supporters begins to agitate Agrippina
- AD 59 dies in prison after arrest
Role of Pallas?
- Occupied position of accounts
- Control of fiscal activities (legal & treasury)
- Extremely wealthy 3 million sesterces
- Rose to prominence through Agrippina rumoured to have illicit affair (un-provable by sources)
- AD 48: role in downfall of Messalina
- AD 50: Advises Claudius to adopt Nero as “protector” of Britannicus
- Tacitus: AD 52 influenced establishment of legislation that forbid free women to have sex with slaves (would be enslaved)
- Negativity derived from fact that they were freedmen and not aristocrats
The imperial cult?
• Imperial cult emperors as gods
• Important aspect of Roman religion
• Origin Hellenistic kingdoms where rulers worshipped as gods
• Took many forms: temples, statues and festivals
Festivals: sacrifices made
– Plays, music, games, activities conducted by priests or priestesses of the cult
• Cult celebrated in major civic centres
Altars and shrines included in public buildings
Rituals performed in theatres
Development of the imperial cult with Augustus?
• Erected temple to adopted father Julius Caesar in Rome after deification Augustus became divi filius – son of a god
• Gave eastern provinces permission to worship him as sign of loyalty
• Discouraged emperor worship in Rome or Italy wanted to be seen as fellow citizen not king or god
• BUT happened anyway worshipped after death
Deified
Priesthood of Augustus (Augustales) established
Slaves & Freedmen served as ‘Servants of Augustan Good Fortune’ performing rituals and sacrifices in Temples of Fortuna Augusta
• 29 BC Asian cities built temples to Rome and Augustus
• Cult introduced to western provinces by Drusus
• Alters to imperial cult erected in Germany & Spain provincials could express loyalty to Rome
• Aphrodisias Sebasteion dedicated to imperial family containing statues of Augustus, Livia, Gaius and Lucius Caesar, Germanicus, Agrippina the Elder, Tiberius & son Drusus
Development of the imperial cult with Tiberius?
- Upon succession, he and mother Livia provided funds for temple and priesthood for Augustus
- Rejected Spanish request to build temple, advising them to think of him as ‘mortal’ (Tacitus)
- Tacitus reluctantly allowed temple to be built to ‘Tiberius, Livia and the Senate’ at Smyrna
- Statue erected at Aphrodisias
- Cult statue found at Bilbilis in Spain
- Refused to allow Senate to deify Livia when she died
- Not deified when died himself
Development of the imperial cult with Gaius?
• Eastern provinces seen as God cult centres established
• Suetonius, Cassius Dio: saw himself as God and promoted image as God
Allowed members of imperial court to address as lord
Priests made sacrifices to him as god (many birds sacrificed acc. to S)
• Josephus, Philo: suggest notion of own divinity evoked him to erect a statue of himself as Jupiter in temple in Jerusalem
• Drusilla’s death deified her – established shrine and priesthood for her in Rome
- Ordered she be given divine honours throughout empire
- First female member of the imperial family to be deified
• C.J Simpson: cult of Caligula established in Rome used divinity as form of imperial control
• Shotter: Disagrees with Simpson no firm evidence of cult
• Barrett: may have been cult dedicated to Gaius’ spirit (acceptable by Augustus)
Development of the imperial cult with Claudius?
• Rejected divine honours
• Allowed Senate to deify grandmother Livia
• Refused request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate temple to him as god
• BUT regarded as god in eastern and in some western provinces
• Temple to imperial cult built at Britain where head from statue of Claudius found
• Death Claudius declared god but cult did not survive
Seneca: called it the “Pumpkinification of Claudius” – made a joke
• Imperial statue from Italy Claudius as Jupiter
Development of the imperial cult with Nero?
• Early in Principate rejected statues of himself & temples dedicated to him in Rome
• East: identified as Apollo, Jupiter & appeared in Aphrodisias with mother
• Some sources suggest Nero portrayed himself as a god
Statue of himself in his Golden House
Image on coins wearing crown
• Griffin: challenges interpretation of archaeological evidence
Statue at golden house – simple portrait not as god
Crown on coins – didn’t only mean deification
• Allowed Senate to deify females of family daughter Claudia and wife Poppaea
• Limited archaeological evidence of his deification after death would have been destroyed
