Politics of the World: Spring Flashcards
Key different types of basic electoral regulations?
- Suffrage matters
- Voting age (16 in Brazil)
- Compulsory voting (Australia)
Define electoral system?
Guides how votes are cast at elections and how they get translated into seats in the institution
Define magnitude of a constituency?
Number of people per constituency that get elected
Examples of Majoritarian voting systems and where they are used?
- Single member plurality: FPTP (Canada, UK)
- AV (Australia)
- Two Rounds (France, Iran)
Examples of Proportional voting systems and where they are used?
-PR systems (Norway, Sweden)
-List PR
Open: Norway, Belgium
Closed: Russia, Turkey
Area Constituencies: Finland, Brazil
Whole Country: Netherlands, Slovakia
Examples of Mixed systems?
Compensatory: Germany, New Zealand
50% using FPTP, 50% Proportional (weighted to smaller parties)
Parallel: Japan, Mexico
50% FPTP. 50% PR (No preferences to small parties)
How many regimes changes have their been from 1950-2008? (Magalon, 2013)
77- Transitions to democracies
42- Democratic breakdown
How many people live under FPTP?
Over 70% live under FPTP
3 functions of electoral systems? (Farrell, 2001)
- Smooth and accepted legitimacy
- Strong, stable governments
- Reflect voters wishes (votes)
Example of List not being more proportional?
Farrell, list system in Greece less proportional than UK’s FPTP
Cox quote on tendencies of UK voters and parties 1987?
The tendency for English voters to vote for parties rather than men appears to be a permanent feature of English politics from 1968 onwards
How many MPs are re-elected on average in the UK?
Norris: 1995 Around 75%
Bagehot quote on how the House of Commons should act?
HoC should think as the nation thinks, but it should think so ratherly more strongly and with somewhat less wavering
Why did New Zealand change electoral systems?
When the Labour party twice won more votes but get less seats (1978 and 1981)
How do systems vary?
- Constituency magnitude
- Thresholds (Lichtenstein- 8%, South Korea- 3%, Slovakia 5% and Netherlands 0.67%)
- Intra-party choice
Pros of FPTP?
- High levels of accountability
- Stable
- Less risk of hung parliaments
- Effective at changing policy
- Easy to identify responsibility for policies
Cons of FPTP?
- Not very representative
- Tends to produce a 2 party system
- Encourages tactical voting
What is Duverger’s law?
Majoritarian voting systems tend towards a two party system
“Single-ballot plurality system tends towards the 2-party system (1951)”
Pros of PR?
- Very representative
- Less wasted votes
- Even small parties can rise up and become winners over time
- Work best for divided countries (Lijphart 1990(
Cons of PR?
- Assumes, often incorrectly, that groups can work together
- Government breakdown due to hung parliaments
- Harder to hold coalitions accountable for bad policies
- Extremists likely to gain traction
Gallagher 2001, how big was Labour’s majority in 2005?
66 seat majority with 35% of the vote but only 61% turnout.
Only 22% of the electorate voted Labour
Mechanical consequences of electoral systems?
- Can be disproportionate, small parties punished
- Duverger’s Law: 2 party tendency in Majoritarian. More parties in PR systems
Driving force behind the formation of parties?
Social divisions are the primary driving force behind the formation of parties (more division - more need for parties). Electoral institutions determine if the demand leads to more parties
Strategic effects of electoral systems/laws?
- Strategic voting (Most chance of winning?)
- Strategic entry (Dilutes ideology of the main parties)
- Government formation (Coalition’s/Manifesto trading/influence of small parties)
- Party platforms (PR parties more extreme)
What did Farell say about proportionality in a PR system?
Harder to determine proportionality in an open list PR system
Rae, 1960s, 3 main factors for proportionality?
- Electoral formula
- District magnitude
- Ballot structure has no effect
Lijphart 1994 how many parties does the UK have?
2.51 party system between 1945-1992
Lowe 1995, on lack of women?
“Failure of party to recruit women in great numbers”
Gallagher (1995) quote on FPTP link with longevity?
FPTP promotes government longevity but doesn’t guarantee it
Lijphart quote on turnout under PR?
“9% higher turnout under PR”
Norris on electoral systems design?
Electoral systems are rarely designed
What is Downs 1957 Median Voter Theorem?
Most voters are quite centrist so parties want to mould their policies to the centre. Leads to a convergence to the Centre and little choice between party policies
Link between corruption and electoral systems?
In majoritarian systems there is a clear link between voter and their representatives. Diminished link under PR (harder to be accountable, especially in a closed list system)
Examples of schemes to boost representation of minorities?
- New Zealand: Have seats just for Maori (Lijphart 1986)
- Norris: Greater increase in women in PR systems
- (Darcy 1994): Place women/minorities higher up party lists
In a Parliamentary democracy what role does the PM have?
- PM Head of Government (not state)
- Not voted in by the people
- Unlimited term
- Can be dismissed by vote of no confidence
What are Lijphart’s essential differences between PM V President? (1999)
- Never directly elected
- Responsible to legislature
- Executive systems are collegial (group focus)
How can PM’s lose power (Parliamentary system)?
-Vote of no confidence
-Constructive vote of no confidence (Germany)
(Must have majority support for an alternative gov to avoid instability and make removal harder)
How are Prime Minsters selected across the globe?
- By whole legislature (Germany, Ireland)
- Negotiation and Vote of investiture (Italy, Belgium)
- Appointed by the Head of State (UK)
Example of a PM’s not from a party?
Monti Italy 2011-2013
Hefferman and Webb 2005 quote on UK PM power?
UK PM is not “first amongst equals”
Fiers on PM power in Europe 2005?
Belgium and Netherlands PM appeared more Presidential since 1990
Italy history of unstable governments?
-40 governments in 71 years (60 Cabinets) system itself is stable though
Hennessy on Tony Blair’s PM style?
“Command premiership”
Rhodes on actors power in democracies? (1995)
“All actors have resources and outcomes can be negotiated”
Crossman on a limit to PM power?
“Hard for PM to control/understand the civil service”
Jones on PM and ministers?
“Work through and with (his) ministers”
Lijphart non essential differences between PM and Presidential system 1999?
- Cabinet members can be part of the legislature (Not in Norway)
- PM’s can dissolve the legislature (Not France)
- Dual executive usually have a monarch/President (not in Botswana)
Major’s quote on PM power (1996)?
“Every leader is a leader only with the support of his party”
Asquith quote on PM leadership?
“PM makes what they want of the position”
What did Tsebelis do his research on in democracies?
Examined the role of Veto players in each system and how they change the status quo
Moe quote on law changes in PM systems?
“More chance of laws being overturned in a parliamentary system”
Lijphart (1984) quote on electoral systems?
“Both systems have advantages and disadvantages. You have to choose a whole system”
3 types of parliamentary government?
- Cabinet (Norway)
- PM (Germany)
- Ministerial (Italy)
When is a Vote of No confidence powerful?
When you have a coalition or if there is a minority government.
King’s Presidentialisation of the role of PM thesis (1994)?
- Media focus/format
- Internationalism
- Policy co-ordination increasingly complex
Pros of parliamentarianism?
- Deadlock less likely (PM has a majority)
- Coalition common, improve democratic equality
- Good survival record
Cons of parliamentarianism?
- Government breakdown likely (easy to dismiss them under PR system)
- PM can be very powerful in a majoritarian system
- Survival record may not be down to the system
What is a semi-presidential system?
- President elected through nation-wide elections (responsible for foreign affairs and emergencies)
- PM appointed by President but needs legislative support (Day to day governance)
Duverger 1990 on Semi- presidential system assessment?
- Extremely weak (Austria, Iceland)
- Moderate powers (Finland)
- Ideal is when President posses actual powers vis-a-vis the PM (France)
What is Cohabitation? Example?
Period when the government majority is from a different party to the President e.g. 1997-200`2 in France, President Chirac (Right) and PM Jospin (Left)
What is one of the most popular choice of systems for new democracies?
Presidentialism
What is the Dickovick definition of legislatures?
Assembly or body of representatives with the authority to make laws
What is a unicameral/bicameral legislature? Examples?
Peru: Unicameral: One Chamber: Presidential
Norway: Unicameral: Parliamentary
Features of UK legislative system?
- Parliamentary
- Parliament
- Bicameral
- “House of Commons” and “House of Lords”
- Limited powers for the Lords
Features of French legislative system?
- Semi
- Parliament
- Bicameral
- National Assembly or Senate
- Less prominent Senate
Features of US legislative system?
- Presidential
- Congress
- Bicameral
- House of Reps or Senate
- Equal
Dickovick 2016, Executive defintion?
Branch of government that executes or administers policies and laws in a country
Features of a Presidential system?
- Executive is Head of Government and state
- Responsible to the people (Cannot dismiss the legislative)
- Responsible for foreign affairs (Commander in Chief)
- Separation of powers. Checks and balances
How do different types of elections work in a Presidential system?
Direct: Nationwide election
- Highest number of votes
- 2 round system
- Electoral colleges
Why did Linz say Presidentialism was less likely to sustain democracy?
- Competing claims for legitimacy (no vote of no confidence)
- Rigidity in fixed terms
- Less tolerant of opponents
- 0 sum gain
- Outsiders more likely
How did Mainwaring critique Linz theory of Presidentialism being worse for democratic sustainability?
- Could have shorter terms
- 2 Houses, dual legitimacy is in parliaments
- Cabinet reshuffles
- winner takes all absent?
- Checks and balances ignored
- Party discipline can aid the system
What happened in 2015 in Venezuela with the judges?
Government appointed 13 new judges (violated the constitution)
Corrales quote on legislation under Presidentialism?
“Autocratic legislation”
Mainwaring on switching systems? (1997)
Would be hard to switch from Presidentialism to a different system
Executive powers in a presidential system?
- President can veto any bill (Overide by 3/4)
- Executive orders and memorandum
- State of emergency
- Issue pardons
- Make trade deals
- Executive orders
Limits on power?
- Unconstitutional orders can be overturned
- Congress can “defund” projects (power of the purse)
- Legislation can be resisted at a local, state and federal level
How does impeachment work?
Legislators can seek to remove the President
- Treason, bribery or other crimes and misdemeanours
- Initiated by the lower chamber and passed to the Upper Chamber for a second vote
ros of Presidentialism?
- Legitimate power (directly elected)
- Split voting possible
- More stable due to the fixed term of office
- More effective in times of war/conflict
- Can be quicker with executive orders
Cons of Presidentialism (Linz 1990)
- Less sustainable?
- Policy concentrated with 1 person
- Slow policy, gridlock
- Exec recruitment issues
- Legislative inconsistency
- Hard to hold people to account
Average life of Presidential and Parliamentary democracies?
- 21 years Presidential
- 71 years Parliamentary
2 methods for a vote of investiture?
- HofS nominates a formateur (usually PM) (Greece, clear rules. Czech Republic Can be anyone)
- Or an Informateur (objective) is selected to find a formateur
2006 example of formateur in Czech Republic elections?
2 possible coalitions, RW President pricked right wing party as formateur (ODS)
Forming coalitions possible motivations for power?
- Politicians want power and status (main currency is office)
- Major party offer seats for support
- Biggest party tries to give away as few seats as possible
- Small party wants as many seats as they can
What is Gamson’s law?
Cabinet portfolios distributed in a strictly proportional manner
What is a minimal winning coalition?
No party that isn’t strictly required to secure a majority won’t be involved. This is to not give up as many seats/portfolios to small parties
What is the least minimal winning coalitions?
Size of the party matters so the most rational option is to join a coalition with the smallest party available that still gives a majority
What was the result of the German elections in 2013?
Grand coalitions formed in 2013 (188 Surplus seats with 3 parties) to prevent extremists
Percentage of time under Minimal Winning Coalitions from 1945-1998?
35.8%
Muller, 2000, on stability of coalitions?
Minority- Least stable
Minimal Winning- Almost as good as single party majority
What is Leveson’s 1960 minimum range proposition?
Minimum ideology in a coalition
Deswan 1973 on good coalitions?
Max policy coherence
Winter on parties behaviour and coalition?
- Behaviour is key
- History
- Familiarity
- Credibility
How can coalitions undermine accountability? (Maravall)
Italian CD party in gov for 48 years, vote from from over 40% in 1949 to 34% in 1988.
Coalitions lose less voters between elections
What is the policy seeking model for power motivations?
Currency is political impact rather than power. The largest party must offer concessions not just seats. Ideological differences and party size key (more concessions needs if further apart/larger)
What is a connected coalition?
All parties in the coalition are close on the political spectrum
What are surplus governments?
Cabinet has more parties than strictly necessary for a majority
Why would you have a surplus government?
- National unity (time of crisis)
- Exclude extremists
- Supermajorities needed for constitutional change (Netherlands)
- Ideology
- Prevent political blackmail
Why have a minority government?
- Strong opposition so can influence policy in committees but not oppose the government (Strom, 1990)
- Corporatist interest group relations
- Tolerance not support
- Lack of clear alternatives
Why do governments end?
- Constitutionally mandated election
- Death
- Early election
- Parliamentary defeat
- Intra-party or Coalition conflict
Theories on why early elections are called?
- Political surfing (Kayser 2005) (Economics!)
- Political business cycle (Clark, 2003) (Manipulate the economy)
- Signalling (Smith 2003)
UK government percentage of GDP expenditure in 1913 and 1996?
7.5% in 1919
45% in 1996
What is Weber’s ideal type of bureaucracy?
To serve as a neutral, administrative tool of implementing the organisation’s goals
How should personnel be under a bureaucracy?
- Life long employment
- Fixed salary
- Pension rights
- Promotion for seniority
- Merit based
- Neutral workforce
How should society be organised under an ideal bureaucracy?
- Strict formal wars
- Written docs and recorded decisions
- Specialist training
- Standardised decisions
- Division of labour
How should society be organised under an ideal bureaucracy according to hierarchy?
- Clear hierarchy of officials
- Function of each clearly defined
- Follow orders to aid efficiency
Possible types of bureaucracy?
Direct: State involved in production of goods/services
Regulation: Procedures to regulate the economy
Transfer: Wealth redistribution (benefits)
Why are bureaucrats influential?
- Expertise
- Permanence
- Control of implementation
- Bureaucratic procedures
Problems with Weber’s bureaucratic model?
- Agents aren’t impartial
- Leisure-seeking
- Political preference
- Career ladder
- Over-regulation
- Over-specialisation
- Personnel stability (out of touch)
What is Parkinson’s Law (1958)?
Work expands to fit the time allotted
Dollar 2001, women and corruption link?
More women, less corruption
What happened in Marbella (1991 and 2003)?
Replaced bureaucracy with appointees
Dahlstrom quote on corruption and bureaucracy?
Professional bureaucracy reduces corruption by selecting agents whose interests differ from politicians
How many of the UK’s politicians are centralised?
48%
UK Political appointee numbers? (Kettl)
451- 1960
2393 - 1992
Walker quote on the bureaucracy? (1981)
“Britain invented a new missile, it doesn’t work and can’t be fired”
What is Niskanen 1971, Public Choice Perspective?
Bureaucrats, like everyone, are self-interested. Want to expand their department and its budget (raise, reputation and more impact). No market competition, so cannot ensure efficiency
Is there evidence for the public choice perspective?
Blais and Dion, 1991 “No clear evidence for the theory”
What is the principal agent problem?
- Leisure-seeking
- Dissent shirking
- Sabotage
- Perhaps politicians also demand too much from them
What are types of spoils system?
Spoils: Neutrality means some see it as an obstacle to effective government. Parties reward supporters with office. Committed to leaders goals (more democratic?)
Covert spoils system: Widely used in post communist countries, used in France to replace the top layers
Problems with the spoils system?
- No longer merit based (not experts)
- Loss of permanence “government of strangers”
- Anyone who stays could cause hostility/sabotage and this can lead to bureaucratic expansions
What is New Public Management?
Fundamental change trying to introduce competition to increase efficiency.
- Performance targets, outside candidates, fixed term contracts)
- Separate agencies competition
- Managerialism and entrepreneurships
Problems with New Public Management?
- De-professionalism
- Civil service instrument of the government of the day
- Increased complexity
- Protect the market from society’s demands
What is de jure and de facto?
Jure- structure (theory)
Facto- Practise
3 criteria for structural federalism?
- Geo-political divisions: Mutually exclusive regions, constitutionally recognised and guaranteed
- Independance: Separate elections, independent basis of authority
- Direct: Policy control of one area. Authority shared
Examples of federal states in democracies?
USA, Canada, Germany, Australia, South Africa
Examples of federal states in autocracies?
Russia, USSR, Ethiopia, Mexico
Explain the history of UAE’s federalism?
7 emirates, originally separate under British protectorate. 1968 negotiations to form foundation of states (without Bahrain and Qatar). Emirates constitutionally guaranteed
Difference between congruent and incongruent Federalism?
Con: Similar demographics, states mirror image of country (US, Brazil)
In: Ethnic divides, country split into homogenous regions
Difference between symmetric and asymmetric Federalism?
Sym: All units possess equal power vis-a-vis the Central government. (Brazil, US)
Asym: Some territorial units have more power (e.g. Quebec in Canada)
World Bank figures on decentralisation in a federal system?
70-80% (Unitary 85-90%)
Rick Perry quote on federalism?
“Ability to vote with your feet”
Montesquieu quote in the federalist papers on why change is easy at a lower level in federal system?
“Less likely to persuade the whole body of the union than a particular member of it”
Stepan (1999) on the point of Federalism?
To promote unity and prevent collapse
Stepan (1999) on the role of the Judiciary under Federalism?
More powerful as they are needed to settle disputes
Person 1996 on the moral hazard risk under federalism?
States riskier as they know they have the federal government to back them up
Riker quote on how federalism emerges (1975)?
“Establishment of federal government must be a rational bargain amongst politicians”
What is decentralisation?
Measure of the % of taxes collected by Central government
Causes of federalism?
Coming together: Bottom up, voluntary! Give up some sovereignty for better prospects. Usually symmetric systems
Holding together: Top down, Central government decision. Usually asymmetric (Belgium, UK)
Advantages of Federalism?
- Best to satisfy citizens preferences and minimise citizen coercion
- Diffuses power
- Increased political participation
- Makes politicians more local
- Can test policies at a local level (US welfare)
Disadvantages of Federalism?
- Rae to the bottom (Exit option prevent reforms)
- Undermines accountability (Blame-shifting)
- Leads to state inequality
- Blockage of national policy
“Ethnic conflict is reduced in a Federal system” arguments?
Linz 1978 and Lijphart 1984
- Appeases ethnic groupings with more independence
- Reduces tensions
- Autonomy protects regional cultures and identities
“Ethnic conflict is worse under a Federal system” arguments?
Roeder 1999
- Strengthens national identity
- Nationalists easier to get into power
- Extremists more likely
- Local powers can indoctrinate citizens
