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2nd Year > Politics of the World: Spring > Flashcards

Politics of the World: Spring Flashcards

1
Q

Key different types of basic electoral regulations?

A
  • Suffrage matters
  • Voting age (16 in Brazil)
  • Compulsory voting (Australia)
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2
Q

Define electoral system?

A

Guides how votes are cast at elections and how they get translated into seats in the institution

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3
Q

Define magnitude of a constituency?

A

Number of people per constituency that get elected

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4
Q

Examples of Majoritarian voting systems and where they are used?

A
  • Single member plurality: FPTP (Canada, UK)
  • AV (Australia)
  • Two Rounds (France, Iran)
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5
Q

Examples of Proportional voting systems and where they are used?

A

-PR systems (Norway, Sweden)
-List PR
Open: Norway, Belgium
Closed: Russia, Turkey
Area Constituencies: Finland, Brazil
Whole Country: Netherlands, Slovakia

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6
Q

Examples of Mixed systems?

A

Compensatory: Germany, New Zealand
50% using FPTP, 50% Proportional (weighted to smaller parties)
Parallel: Japan, Mexico
50% FPTP. 50% PR (No preferences to small parties)

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7
Q

How many regimes changes have their been from 1950-2008? (Magalon, 2013)

A

77- Transitions to democracies

42- Democratic breakdown

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8
Q

How many people live under FPTP?

A

Over 70% live under FPTP

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9
Q

3 functions of electoral systems? (Farrell, 2001)

A
  • Smooth and accepted legitimacy
  • Strong, stable governments
  • Reflect voters wishes (votes)
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10
Q

Example of List not being more proportional?

A

Farrell, list system in Greece less proportional than UK’s FPTP

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11
Q

Cox quote on tendencies of UK voters and parties 1987?

A

The tendency for English voters to vote for parties rather than men appears to be a permanent feature of English politics from 1968 onwards

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12
Q

How many MPs are re-elected on average in the UK?

A

Norris: 1995 Around 75%

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13
Q

Bagehot quote on how the House of Commons should act?

A

HoC should think as the nation thinks, but it should think so ratherly more strongly and with somewhat less wavering

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14
Q

Why did New Zealand change electoral systems?

A

When the Labour party twice won more votes but get less seats (1978 and 1981)

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15
Q

How do systems vary?

A
  • Constituency magnitude
  • Thresholds (Lichtenstein- 8%, South Korea- 3%, Slovakia 5% and Netherlands 0.67%)
  • Intra-party choice
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16
Q

Pros of FPTP?

A
  • High levels of accountability
  • Stable
  • Less risk of hung parliaments
  • Effective at changing policy
  • Easy to identify responsibility for policies
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17
Q

Cons of FPTP?

A
  • Not very representative
  • Tends to produce a 2 party system
  • Encourages tactical voting
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18
Q

What is Duverger’s law?

A

Majoritarian voting systems tend towards a two party system

“Single-ballot plurality system tends towards the 2-party system (1951)”

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19
Q

Pros of PR?

A
  • Very representative
  • Less wasted votes
  • Even small parties can rise up and become winners over time
  • Work best for divided countries (Lijphart 1990(
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20
Q

Cons of PR?

A
  • Assumes, often incorrectly, that groups can work together
  • Government breakdown due to hung parliaments
  • Harder to hold coalitions accountable for bad policies
  • Extremists likely to gain traction
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21
Q

Gallagher 2001, how big was Labour’s majority in 2005?

A

66 seat majority with 35% of the vote but only 61% turnout.

Only 22% of the electorate voted Labour

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22
Q

Mechanical consequences of electoral systems?

A
  • Can be disproportionate, small parties punished

- Duverger’s Law: 2 party tendency in Majoritarian. More parties in PR systems

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23
Q

Driving force behind the formation of parties?

A

Social divisions are the primary driving force behind the formation of parties (more division - more need for parties). Electoral institutions determine if the demand leads to more parties

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24
Q

Strategic effects of electoral systems/laws?

A
  • Strategic voting (Most chance of winning?)
  • Strategic entry (Dilutes ideology of the main parties)
  • Government formation (Coalition’s/Manifesto trading/influence of small parties)
  • Party platforms (PR parties more extreme)
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25
Q

What did Farell say about proportionality in a PR system?

A

Harder to determine proportionality in an open list PR system

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26
Q

Rae, 1960s, 3 main factors for proportionality?

A
  • Electoral formula
  • District magnitude
  • Ballot structure has no effect
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27
Q

Lijphart 1994 how many parties does the UK have?

A

2.51 party system between 1945-1992

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28
Q

Lowe 1995, on lack of women?

A

“Failure of party to recruit women in great numbers”

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29
Q

Gallagher (1995) quote on FPTP link with longevity?

A

FPTP promotes government longevity but doesn’t guarantee it

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30
Q

Lijphart quote on turnout under PR?

A

“9% higher turnout under PR”

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31
Q

Norris on electoral systems design?

A

Electoral systems are rarely designed

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32
Q

What is Downs 1957 Median Voter Theorem?

A

Most voters are quite centrist so parties want to mould their policies to the centre. Leads to a convergence to the Centre and little choice between party policies

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33
Q

Link between corruption and electoral systems?

A

In majoritarian systems there is a clear link between voter and their representatives. Diminished link under PR (harder to be accountable, especially in a closed list system)

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34
Q

Examples of schemes to boost representation of minorities?

A
  • New Zealand: Have seats just for Maori (Lijphart 1986)
  • Norris: Greater increase in women in PR systems
  • (Darcy 1994): Place women/minorities higher up party lists
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35
Q

In a Parliamentary democracy what role does the PM have?

A
  • PM Head of Government (not state)
  • Not voted in by the people
  • Unlimited term
  • Can be dismissed by vote of no confidence
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36
Q

What are Lijphart’s essential differences between PM V President? (1999)

A
  • Never directly elected
  • Responsible to legislature
  • Executive systems are collegial (group focus)
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37
Q

How can PM’s lose power (Parliamentary system)?

A

-Vote of no confidence
-Constructive vote of no confidence (Germany)
(Must have majority support for an alternative gov to avoid instability and make removal harder)

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38
Q

How are Prime Minsters selected across the globe?

A
  • By whole legislature (Germany, Ireland)
  • Negotiation and Vote of investiture (Italy, Belgium)
  • Appointed by the Head of State (UK)
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39
Q

Example of a PM’s not from a party?

A

Monti Italy 2011-2013

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40
Q

Hefferman and Webb 2005 quote on UK PM power?

A

UK PM is not “first amongst equals”

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41
Q

Fiers on PM power in Europe 2005?

A

Belgium and Netherlands PM appeared more Presidential since 1990

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42
Q

Italy history of unstable governments?

A

-40 governments in 71 years (60 Cabinets) system itself is stable though

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43
Q

Hennessy on Tony Blair’s PM style?

A

“Command premiership”

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44
Q

Rhodes on actors power in democracies? (1995)

A

“All actors have resources and outcomes can be negotiated”

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45
Q

Crossman on a limit to PM power?

A

“Hard for PM to control/understand the civil service”

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46
Q

Jones on PM and ministers?

A

“Work through and with (his) ministers”

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47
Q

Lijphart non essential differences between PM and Presidential system 1999?

A
  • Cabinet members can be part of the legislature (Not in Norway)
  • PM’s can dissolve the legislature (Not France)
  • Dual executive usually have a monarch/President (not in Botswana)
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48
Q

Major’s quote on PM power (1996)?

A

“Every leader is a leader only with the support of his party”

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49
Q

Asquith quote on PM leadership?

A

“PM makes what they want of the position”

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50
Q

What did Tsebelis do his research on in democracies?

A

Examined the role of Veto players in each system and how they change the status quo

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51
Q

Moe quote on law changes in PM systems?

A

“More chance of laws being overturned in a parliamentary system”

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52
Q

Lijphart (1984) quote on electoral systems?

A

“Both systems have advantages and disadvantages. You have to choose a whole system”

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53
Q

3 types of parliamentary government?

A
  • Cabinet (Norway)
  • PM (Germany)
  • Ministerial (Italy)
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54
Q

When is a Vote of No confidence powerful?

A

When you have a coalition or if there is a minority government.

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55
Q

King’s Presidentialisation of the role of PM thesis (1994)?

A
  • Media focus/format
  • Internationalism
  • Policy co-ordination increasingly complex
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56
Q

Pros of parliamentarianism?

A
  • Deadlock less likely (PM has a majority)
  • Coalition common, improve democratic equality
  • Good survival record
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57
Q

Cons of parliamentarianism?

A
  • Government breakdown likely (easy to dismiss them under PR system)
  • PM can be very powerful in a majoritarian system
  • Survival record may not be down to the system
58
Q

What is a semi-presidential system?

A
  • President elected through nation-wide elections (responsible for foreign affairs and emergencies)
  • PM appointed by President but needs legislative support (Day to day governance)
59
Q

Duverger 1990 on Semi- presidential system assessment?

A
  • Extremely weak (Austria, Iceland)
  • Moderate powers (Finland)
  • Ideal is when President posses actual powers vis-a-vis the PM (France)
60
Q

What is Cohabitation? Example?

A

Period when the government majority is from a different party to the President e.g. 1997-200`2 in France, President Chirac (Right) and PM Jospin (Left)

61
Q

What is one of the most popular choice of systems for new democracies?

A

Presidentialism

62
Q

What is the Dickovick definition of legislatures?

A

Assembly or body of representatives with the authority to make laws

63
Q

What is a unicameral/bicameral legislature? Examples?

A

Peru: Unicameral: One Chamber: Presidential
Norway: Unicameral: Parliamentary

64
Q

Features of UK legislative system?

A
  • Parliamentary
  • Parliament
  • Bicameral
  • “House of Commons” and “House of Lords”
  • Limited powers for the Lords
65
Q

Features of French legislative system?

A
  • Semi
  • Parliament
  • Bicameral
  • National Assembly or Senate
  • Less prominent Senate
66
Q

Features of US legislative system?

A
  • Presidential
  • Congress
  • Bicameral
  • House of Reps or Senate
  • Equal
67
Q

Dickovick 2016, Executive defintion?

A

Branch of government that executes or administers policies and laws in a country

68
Q

Features of a Presidential system?

A
  • Executive is Head of Government and state
  • Responsible to the people (Cannot dismiss the legislative)
  • Responsible for foreign affairs (Commander in Chief)
  • Separation of powers. Checks and balances
69
Q

How do different types of elections work in a Presidential system?

A

Direct: Nationwide election

  • Highest number of votes
  • 2 round system
  • Electoral colleges
70
Q

Why did Linz say Presidentialism was less likely to sustain democracy?

A
  • Competing claims for legitimacy (no vote of no confidence)
  • Rigidity in fixed terms
  • Less tolerant of opponents
  • 0 sum gain
  • Outsiders more likely
71
Q

How did Mainwaring critique Linz theory of Presidentialism being worse for democratic sustainability?

A
  • Could have shorter terms
  • 2 Houses, dual legitimacy is in parliaments
  • Cabinet reshuffles
  • winner takes all absent?
  • Checks and balances ignored
  • Party discipline can aid the system
72
Q

What happened in 2015 in Venezuela with the judges?

A

Government appointed 13 new judges (violated the constitution)

73
Q

Corrales quote on legislation under Presidentialism?

A

“Autocratic legislation”

74
Q

Mainwaring on switching systems? (1997)

A

Would be hard to switch from Presidentialism to a different system

75
Q

Executive powers in a presidential system?

A
  • President can veto any bill (Overide by 3/4)
  • Executive orders and memorandum
  • State of emergency
  • Issue pardons
  • Make trade deals
  • Executive orders
76
Q

Limits on power?

A
  • Unconstitutional orders can be overturned
  • Congress can “defund” projects (power of the purse)
  • Legislation can be resisted at a local, state and federal level
77
Q

How does impeachment work?

A

Legislators can seek to remove the President

  • Treason, bribery or other crimes and misdemeanours
  • Initiated by the lower chamber and passed to the Upper Chamber for a second vote
78
Q

ros of Presidentialism?

A
  • Legitimate power (directly elected)
  • Split voting possible
  • More stable due to the fixed term of office
  • More effective in times of war/conflict
  • Can be quicker with executive orders
79
Q

Cons of Presidentialism (Linz 1990)

A
  • Less sustainable?
  • Policy concentrated with 1 person
  • Slow policy, gridlock
  • Exec recruitment issues
  • Legislative inconsistency
  • Hard to hold people to account
80
Q

Average life of Presidential and Parliamentary democracies?

A
  • 21 years Presidential

- 71 years Parliamentary

81
Q

2 methods for a vote of investiture?

A
  • HofS nominates a formateur (usually PM) (Greece, clear rules. Czech Republic Can be anyone)
  • Or an Informateur (objective) is selected to find a formateur
82
Q

2006 example of formateur in Czech Republic elections?

A

2 possible coalitions, RW President pricked right wing party as formateur (ODS)

83
Q

Forming coalitions possible motivations for power?

A
  • Politicians want power and status (main currency is office)
  • Major party offer seats for support
  • Biggest party tries to give away as few seats as possible
  • Small party wants as many seats as they can
84
Q

What is Gamson’s law?

A

Cabinet portfolios distributed in a strictly proportional manner

85
Q

What is a minimal winning coalition?

A

No party that isn’t strictly required to secure a majority won’t be involved. This is to not give up as many seats/portfolios to small parties

86
Q

What is the least minimal winning coalitions?

A

Size of the party matters so the most rational option is to join a coalition with the smallest party available that still gives a majority

87
Q

What was the result of the German elections in 2013?

A

Grand coalitions formed in 2013 (188 Surplus seats with 3 parties) to prevent extremists

88
Q

Percentage of time under Minimal Winning Coalitions from 1945-1998?

A

35.8%

89
Q

Muller, 2000, on stability of coalitions?

A

Minority- Least stable

Minimal Winning- Almost as good as single party majority

90
Q

What is Leveson’s 1960 minimum range proposition?

A

Minimum ideology in a coalition

91
Q

Deswan 1973 on good coalitions?

A

Max policy coherence

92
Q

Winter on parties behaviour and coalition?

A
  • Behaviour is key
  • History
  • Familiarity
  • Credibility
93
Q

How can coalitions undermine accountability? (Maravall)

A

Italian CD party in gov for 48 years, vote from from over 40% in 1949 to 34% in 1988.
Coalitions lose less voters between elections

94
Q

What is the policy seeking model for power motivations?

A

Currency is political impact rather than power. The largest party must offer concessions not just seats. Ideological differences and party size key (more concessions needs if further apart/larger)

95
Q

What is a connected coalition?

A

All parties in the coalition are close on the political spectrum

96
Q

What are surplus governments?

A

Cabinet has more parties than strictly necessary for a majority

97
Q

Why would you have a surplus government?

A
  • National unity (time of crisis)
  • Exclude extremists
  • Supermajorities needed for constitutional change (Netherlands)
  • Ideology
  • Prevent political blackmail
98
Q

Why have a minority government?

A
  • Strong opposition so can influence policy in committees but not oppose the government (Strom, 1990)
  • Corporatist interest group relations
  • Tolerance not support
  • Lack of clear alternatives
99
Q

Why do governments end?

A
  • Constitutionally mandated election
  • Death
  • Early election
  • Parliamentary defeat
  • Intra-party or Coalition conflict
100
Q

Theories on why early elections are called?

A
  • Political surfing (Kayser 2005) (Economics!)
  • Political business cycle (Clark, 2003) (Manipulate the economy)
  • Signalling (Smith 2003)
101
Q

UK government percentage of GDP expenditure in 1913 and 1996?

A

7.5% in 1919

45% in 1996

102
Q

What is Weber’s ideal type of bureaucracy?

A

To serve as a neutral, administrative tool of implementing the organisation’s goals

103
Q

How should personnel be under a bureaucracy?

A
  • Life long employment
  • Fixed salary
  • Pension rights
  • Promotion for seniority
  • Merit based
  • Neutral workforce
104
Q

How should society be organised under an ideal bureaucracy?

A
  • Strict formal wars
  • Written docs and recorded decisions
  • Specialist training
  • Standardised decisions
  • Division of labour
105
Q

How should society be organised under an ideal bureaucracy according to hierarchy?

A
  • Clear hierarchy of officials
  • Function of each clearly defined
  • Follow orders to aid efficiency
106
Q

Possible types of bureaucracy?

A

Direct: State involved in production of goods/services
Regulation: Procedures to regulate the economy
Transfer: Wealth redistribution (benefits)

107
Q

Why are bureaucrats influential?

A
  • Expertise
  • Permanence
  • Control of implementation
  • Bureaucratic procedures
108
Q

Problems with Weber’s bureaucratic model?

A
  • Agents aren’t impartial
  • Leisure-seeking
  • Political preference
  • Career ladder
  • Over-regulation
  • Over-specialisation
  • Personnel stability (out of touch)
109
Q

What is Parkinson’s Law (1958)?

A

Work expands to fit the time allotted

110
Q

Dollar 2001, women and corruption link?

A

More women, less corruption

111
Q

What happened in Marbella (1991 and 2003)?

A

Replaced bureaucracy with appointees

112
Q

Dahlstrom quote on corruption and bureaucracy?

A

Professional bureaucracy reduces corruption by selecting agents whose interests differ from politicians

113
Q

How many of the UK’s politicians are centralised?

A

48%

114
Q

UK Political appointee numbers? (Kettl)

A

451- 1960

2393 - 1992

115
Q

Walker quote on the bureaucracy? (1981)

A

“Britain invented a new missile, it doesn’t work and can’t be fired”

116
Q

What is Niskanen 1971, Public Choice Perspective?

A

Bureaucrats, like everyone, are self-interested. Want to expand their department and its budget (raise, reputation and more impact). No market competition, so cannot ensure efficiency

117
Q

Is there evidence for the public choice perspective?

A

Blais and Dion, 1991 “No clear evidence for the theory”

118
Q

What is the principal agent problem?

A
  • Leisure-seeking
  • Dissent shirking
  • Sabotage
  • Perhaps politicians also demand too much from them
119
Q

What are types of spoils system?

A

Spoils: Neutrality means some see it as an obstacle to effective government. Parties reward supporters with office. Committed to leaders goals (more democratic?)
Covert spoils system: Widely used in post communist countries, used in France to replace the top layers

120
Q

Problems with the spoils system?

A
  • No longer merit based (not experts)
  • Loss of permanence “government of strangers”
  • Anyone who stays could cause hostility/sabotage and this can lead to bureaucratic expansions
121
Q

What is New Public Management?

A

Fundamental change trying to introduce competition to increase efficiency.

  • Performance targets, outside candidates, fixed term contracts)
  • Separate agencies competition
  • Managerialism and entrepreneurships
122
Q

Problems with New Public Management?

A
  • De-professionalism
  • Civil service instrument of the government of the day
  • Increased complexity
  • Protect the market from society’s demands
123
Q

What is de jure and de facto?

A

Jure- structure (theory)

Facto- Practise

124
Q

3 criteria for structural federalism?

A
  • Geo-political divisions: Mutually exclusive regions, constitutionally recognised and guaranteed
  • Independance: Separate elections, independent basis of authority
  • Direct: Policy control of one area. Authority shared
125
Q

Examples of federal states in democracies?

A

USA, Canada, Germany, Australia, South Africa

126
Q

Examples of federal states in autocracies?

A

Russia, USSR, Ethiopia, Mexico

127
Q

Explain the history of UAE’s federalism?

A

7 emirates, originally separate under British protectorate. 1968 negotiations to form foundation of states (without Bahrain and Qatar). Emirates constitutionally guaranteed

128
Q

Difference between congruent and incongruent Federalism?

A

Con: Similar demographics, states mirror image of country (US, Brazil)
In: Ethnic divides, country split into homogenous regions

129
Q

Difference between symmetric and asymmetric Federalism?

A

Sym: All units possess equal power vis-a-vis the Central government. (Brazil, US)
Asym: Some territorial units have more power (e.g. Quebec in Canada)

130
Q

World Bank figures on decentralisation in a federal system?

A

70-80% (Unitary 85-90%)

131
Q

Rick Perry quote on federalism?

A

“Ability to vote with your feet”

132
Q

Montesquieu quote in the federalist papers on why change is easy at a lower level in federal system?

A

“Less likely to persuade the whole body of the union than a particular member of it”

133
Q

Stepan (1999) on the point of Federalism?

A

To promote unity and prevent collapse

134
Q

Stepan (1999) on the role of the Judiciary under Federalism?

A

More powerful as they are needed to settle disputes

135
Q

Person 1996 on the moral hazard risk under federalism?

A

States riskier as they know they have the federal government to back them up

136
Q

Riker quote on how federalism emerges (1975)?

A

“Establishment of federal government must be a rational bargain amongst politicians”

137
Q

What is decentralisation?

A

Measure of the % of taxes collected by Central government

138
Q

Causes of federalism?

A

Coming together: Bottom up, voluntary! Give up some sovereignty for better prospects. Usually symmetric systems
Holding together: Top down, Central government decision. Usually asymmetric (Belgium, UK)

139
Q

Advantages of Federalism?

A
  • Best to satisfy citizens preferences and minimise citizen coercion
  • Diffuses power
  • Increased political participation
  • Makes politicians more local
  • Can test policies at a local level (US welfare)
140
Q

Disadvantages of Federalism?

A
  • Rae to the bottom (Exit option prevent reforms)
  • Undermines accountability (Blame-shifting)
  • Leads to state inequality
  • Blockage of national policy
141
Q

“Ethnic conflict is reduced in a Federal system” arguments?

A

Linz 1978 and Lijphart 1984

  • Appeases ethnic groupings with more independence
  • Reduces tensions
  • Autonomy protects regional cultures and identities
142
Q

“Ethnic conflict is worse under a Federal system” arguments?

A

Roeder 1999

  • Strengthens national identity
  • Nationalists easier to get into power
  • Extremists more likely
  • Local powers can indoctrinate citizens

2nd Year (8 decks)

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