political authority under Alexander 2nd Flashcards
reactionary policies
-Shuvalov (head of Third Section):
-tightened up censorship, revolutionary groups harassed by third section
-reorganisation of zemstvo in 1870, more power to the nobility
-increased rule by decree, and the tsar’s power
-Tolstoy (Education Minister):
-moral views of teacher now checked, and schools inspected
-classical subjects favoured over modern, university entry restricted to those with a classical education
reasons for reactionary policies after 1866
-assassination attempt
-reforms caused demand for further change, he was not prepared to do so
-education reforms had increased radicalism amongst the youth
-increase in books and articles exposed the weaknesses of autocracy
-1863 polish revolt, regional government permitted in Poland increased calls for independence
church reform and its problems
-church schools could admit anyone regardless of their family or social background
-family claims to clerical positions abolished, children of clergy no longer held clerical status and clergy could not marry to inherit
-clerical sons found positions outside the clergy leading to a drop in the number of priests especially in villages
-reforms failed to improve the condition of the clergy, not desirable profession for young men
reasons for church reform
church used by government to reinforce respect for autocracy
-desire for reform called for, as clergy were often underpaid and struggled to make ends meet
-clergy was a hereditary system making them a separate social class, causing many russians to become disillusioned with the church
vera zasulich
-shot general trepov, governer of st petersburg
-admitted guilt in court, but said her actions were politically justified
-trepov known to be exceptionally cruel
-jury accepted zasulich’s plea and she was found not guilty
-trial highly publicised and the public applauded the verdict
-government could not risk an acquittal like this again, so moved political trials out of the control of regular courts
weaknesses and problems of judicial reforms
shortage of trained lawyers initially
-trial by jury not used across the whole empire
-volost meant peasants were kept outside of the regular judicial system emphasising their lower status
-volost judges ofte illiterate, unfair trial
-church courts (handled divorce) military courts and government officials remained outside of the new system
-1870s special courts established to deal with revolutionaries
impact of judicial reforms
-new system fairer and less corrupt
-JPs courts worked fast
-1860s and 70s independent articulate legal profession established, trained in the skills of legal argument and persuasion
judicial reform
-simplified system: local, provincial, and national courts established
-independent salaried judges
-trial by jury for criminal cases
-courts open to the press and public, national trials reported in the government newspaper (the Russian Courier)
-Justices of Peace for smaller cases in local courts elected by zemstva every three years
-volost (peasant court) had judges elected from peasantry
-innocent until proven guilty
reasons for judicial reform
-many judges had no legal training and some were illiterate
-no jury system, no lawyers, no examination of witnesses
-those accused were guilty until proven innocent
-court system was corrupt, susceptible to bribes
impact of censorship reform
-number of books published grew from 1020 in 1855 to 1836 in 1864
-public opinion more informed
-some editors reported on social problems, previously unconsidered
-some journals overly radical, others more moderate
-censorship retightened in 1870s
censorship reform
-1855, censorship committee abolished, control over censorship given jointly to ministry for education and ministry of the interior, 1862 minister for internal affairs took full control
-1863, publication of liberal ideas allowed as long as it wasn’t considered dangerous to the regime
-foreign publications allowed, subject to political approval
-editors given more freedom
consequences of education reform
-secondary education remained the preserve of professional and upper classes
-more literate peasants took on bigger ambitions
-growth in radicalism amongst the student population, especially after the first assassination attempt, restrictions were imposed on the banning of student organisations, sometimes even universities were shut down
impact of education reform
-1856-1878 number of primary schools rose from 8,000 to almost 25,000
-number of secondary schools doubled 1860s
-standard of teaching improved
-radical change in university professors, many replaced with enlightened, liberal minded professors
education reforms
-education statute 1864:
-education responsibility given to the zemstva
-new secondary schools (gimnazii) built, open to children of all classes, curriculum focused on the classics and modern subjects e.g. science
-from 1870 women were allowed to attend secondary schools for non-vocational courses
-university statute 1863:
-universities could govern themselves and appoint their own staff, could chose their own curriculum, admit and discipline students as they wish
reasons for education reform and response
-elementary education had been controlled by the church for centuries, and the standard of teaching had generally been poor
-a modern state required an educated population
-increased financial support to universities increased the number of non-noble students that could attend
weaknesses and limitations of zemstva
-vote heavily weighted to the nobles, over 40% of the lower tier and 70% of the upper tier
-zemstva presidents appointed by the tsar rather than being elected
-restrictions placed on how taxes could be raised and they had trouble raising taxes
-peasants hardly participated, they resented paying zemstvo tax
-provisional governers had the power to reverse decisions
-third element became more critical and hostile to government
positive consequences of zemstva
-appeased landowners
-brought lasting benefit to local communities e.g better roads, improved health and education facilities etc.
-creation of more jobs and salaries
-locals could now take the initiative in their district
-zemstvo officials enagaged in Russia’s real social problems
local government reforms
-two-tier system of zemstva: district zemstva elected by nobles, merchants and peasants, and a proportion of these formed the provincial zemstva, elected evry three years, responsible for health, education etc.
-‘third element’ levied a small tax for expenses
-1870, zemstvo system was extended to towns where elected assemblies were called dumy
reasons for local government reform
-responsibility for crucial local government functions e.g. taxation and army recruitment had been up to the serf owners
-off the back of emancipation, local government was needed, elected local government introduced 1864
impact of military reforms
-size of army increased, reserves could be called up during war, 1877, 750,000+ reserves called up to fight in Turkey
-recruitment process more civilised
-somewhat broke down class privilege
-reduction in service time was cheaper, as in 1846 budget, defence cost 45% of the budget
-2-3 million soldiers educated 1870s-90s
-officers remained largely autocratic
-Russia only defeated the Turks after months of bitter fighting (1877-78)
-problems of supply, provisioning and leadership remained
response to military reforms
-opposed by nobility and merchants, did not want their children to mix with peasants
-government feared that returning serfs would use their training to promote discontent
-fully professional army posed a threat to autocracy
military reforms
-modern weapons e.g. rifles introduced, and a greater emphasis put on engineering, especially the construction of railways, to make Russia competitive internationally
-officer corps given proper training, military colleges introduced, promotion became more open
-number of punishments for which capital punishment could be imposed reduced and corporal punishment abolished
-service reduced from 25 to 15, 6 active service, 9 in reserve, military colonies ended, drafting of convicts ended
reasons for military reforms
-inefficient system, serfs drafted by owners for 25 years
-recruits had little education, forced to live in milatary colonies, had no promotion opportunity, so morale was low
-defeat in the Crimean war (1854-56) and the abolition of serfdom (1861) made reform necessary
-Milyutin (Minister for War) responsible for reform
gains/losses for nobility from emancipation
-some landowners lost 1/3 of their estates
-landowners lost income from feudal dues
-nobility continued to play a role in policing
-landowners received above market value for the land they sold
-between 1863 and 1914 noble owned land fell by almost 50 million hectares
