Political and governmental change, 1945-89 Flashcards
When did Germany suffer a total defeat in WW2?
1945
For what reasons did Germany suffer defeat in WW2?
- the country had become engaged in a conflict for which it was not fully prepared
- the alliance with Mussolini proved to be of little benefit
- Germany failed to defeat the Soviet Union
- the USA gave a considerable amount of money and manpower to the Allies when it entered the war
Following its surrender in May 1945, what happened to Germany?
It ceased to exist as an independent country, and the central government had broken down.
Give examples of Nazi leaders who had committed suicide.
Hitler and Goebbels, while others had fled or been captured and arrested.
Who was Germany under the administration (governance) of?
The Allies (America, Britain, France and the Soviet Union).
When was the Potsdam Conference?
July - August 1945
What did the Allies agree at the Potsdam Conference?
To divide Germany into four “zones of occupation” run by the four countries. The capital of Germany was Berlin in the Soviet zone, but was also divided into four zones. It was agreed the the division of Germany was to be temporary and the Allies would soon negotiate a final settlement for the whole of Germany.
What was the Allied Control Council (ACC)?
Set up as a governing body to oversee all four “zones of occupation” and exercise overall joint authority over the country to make decisions across the zones. This was in order to keep Germany “intact” for re-unification.
When were political parties re-established in Germany from?
June 1945, and many were based in Berlin to allow for communication across the four zones.
Germany was divided into four occupied zones, which countries ran each zone?
• Great Britain in the northwest
• France in the southwest
• USA in the south
• Soviet Union in the east
After WW2: Which country ran Berlin?
Soviet Union
What were the economic problems Germany faced after the war?
- major German cities had been reduced to rubble because of British, American, and Soviet bomb campaigns
- many people in need of housing
- food shortages were a severe problem
- much of Germany’s infrastructure (e.g bridges, railways, gas and water facilities) and industries were damaged, or broken down and the nation was in huge debt.
After WW2: What percentage of housing had been completely destroyed?
20%
and a further 30% badly damaged. Many were in need of temporary accommodation.
After WW2: What did food consumption per day drop to?
Between 950 and 1150 calories, as opposed to recommended 2000 per day.
Describe political and economic situation in Germany after the Second World War?
• very precarious politically
• lots of people indoctrinated by Nazi ideology/still favoured Nazis
• chaos and destruction
• food and housing shortages
• struggle between allies for Berlin
• infrastructure completely destroyed
What happened as relations between USSR and West worsened?
Developed in Cold War
As Cold War tensions developed, what became increasingly evident?
That the division between the eastern communist and western non-communist sections of Germany and Berlin would become permanent.
After the Second World War, what ‘common enemy’ that had existed between the capitalist nations and the communist USSR had disappeared?
Nazi Germany
Why did the East and West become increasingly suspicious of each other in the lead up to permanent separation?
- The development of nuclear weaponry
- The expansion of Soviet influence across eastern Europe.
- America’s more aggressive policy of “containment” (a commitment to preventing the spread of communism).
Steps to permanent separation: By 1948, what countries had become communist states?
All eastern European countries, except Greece, had become communist states e.g Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Poland
Steps to permanent separation: In May 1946, what did the US do?
Disallowed reparation payments from West Germany to be given to the Soviet Union. Tensions were high, America did not want to associate with the Soviet Union/East Germany.
Steps to permanent separation: When did USA disallow reparations from West Germany to be given to Soviet Union?
May 1946
Steps to permanent separation: What was the results of the October 1946 election in Berlin?
The communists won in the Soviet zone (the KPD and SPD parties had joined to form one party), but did very badly in all other zones (where both political parties were still separate). Shows they had dominance in some parts of Germany, so could work with this.
Steps to permanent separation: March 20th 1947
The USSR left the Allied Control Council, making it clear they were not interested in re-unification.
Steps to permanent separation: When did the USSR leave the Allied Control Council?
March 1947.
Steps to permanent separation: May 1947
America and Britain combined their ‘zones of occupation’, creating Bizonia. Shows first signs of separation.
Steps to permanent separation: When did Britain and America create Bizonia?
May 1947
Steps to permanent separation: What did America introduce from 1948?
America introduced the Marshall Plan and began issuing economic aid to European countries, including Germany’s western ‘zones of occupation, to re-boost the European economy and to prevent communism from taking hold in western Europe. Stalin disallowed eastern European countries from receiving this aid.
Steps to permanent separation: What was the Marshall Plan?
US-sponsored initiative designed to rehabilitate the economies of 17 western and southern European countries in order to create stable conditions in which democratic institutions could survive.
Steps to permanent separation: What happened in June 1948?
Bizonia introduced a new currency, the Deutschmark, to the western-controlled zones of Germany to help develop the economy.
Steps to permanent separation: How did Stalin respond to the creation of the Deutschmark?
By blockading Berlin, closing transport and communication links to the city (e.g. roads; railways).
Steps to permanent separation: How did America respond to the Berlin blockade?
By airlifting supplies into the western zones, which continued for 11 months until Stalin lifted the blockade in May 1949.
Steps to permanent separation: When did Stalin lift the Berlin blockade?
May 1949 (started in June 1948)
Steps to permanent separation: When did France join Bizonia, creating Trizonia?
22nd May 1949
Steps to permanent separation: What was set up in September 1948?
A Parliamentary Council - to put together a new constitution for a new country not including the Soviet ‘zone of occupation’: West Germany.
Steps to permanent separation: What happened on the 22nd May 1949?
The three ‘zones of occupation’ of Britain, the USA and France formally became one: the Federal Republic of Germany, otherwise known as West Germany.
Steps to permanent separation: What happened on the 7th October 1949?
The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was officially announced as a new nation.
What did the FRG and GDR being announced mean for Germany?
These actions marked the end of the possiblity of a reunified Germany after the Second World war. For the next 41 years, East and West Germany served as symbols of the divided world, and of the Cold War animosities between the Soviet Union and the United States.
Evidence that western nations were responsible for the increase in Cold War tensions between 1945-49 and the division of Germany into East and West?
- America had an aggressive policy of “containment” - preventing the spread of communism - angering USSR.
- US disallowed reparation payments from West Germany to be given to the Soviets.
- America and Britain created Bizonia - excluding USSR.
- America introduced Marshall Plan.
- Isolating USSR from economic relief creates an environment of economic competition.
- 1948 Parliamentary Council not including Soviets.
Evidence that USSR was responsible for the increase in Cold War tensions between 1945-49 and the division of Germany into East and West?
- Isolation and breakdown of communication - leaving the ACC, disallowing Eastern countries from receiving Marshall Aid.
- Military responses - blockading Berlin.
- Soviet expansion in Eastern European countries - scares the west.
What did the post-war constitution of the FRG attempt to deal with?
The weaknesses of the previous democratic institutions, while limiting political extremism.
What was de-nazification?
An Allied initiative to rid German and Austrian society, culture, press, economy, judiciary, and politics of the Nazi ideology following the Second World War. There was a mass internment of former Nazis who had political responsibilities and leadership roles.
What did the Allies want to do with the Nazis but what was the problem?
Wanted to remove Nazis from all positions in society, but it proved to be impracticable. Therefore in 1946 they decided to deal with de-Nazification on a case-by-case basis. Penalties were harsh and resulted in people playing down their Nazi past.
Evidence that de-Nazification was a success
- The Allies forced thousands of Germans to visit opened concentration camps and assist with burials to confront their guilt.
- The Allies banned all ex-Nazis from all leading positions of power. By late 1946, nearly 250,000 ex-Nazis were arrested and held in prison.
- The major focus of de-Nazification was the Nuremberg trials - an international court which presided over the war crimes of Nazis. At the first trial, 10 Nazis were sentenced to death and Goering committed suicide the night before.
- Symbols of Nazi rule were destroyed such as the Swastika at the Nuremberg stadium.
What did the Allies force Germans to do during de-Nazification?
To visit opened concentration camps and assist with burials to confront their guilt.
What did Allies ban all ex-Nazis from? (de-Nazification)
Leading positions of power
By late 1946, how many ex-Nazis had been imprisoned and taken to prison?
Nearly 250,000
What were the Nuremberg trials?
A series of trials carried out in Nuremberg, Germany, between 1945 and 1946. The defendants, who included Nazi Party officials and high-ranking military officers along with German industrialists, lawyers and doctors, were indicted on such charges as crimes against peace and crimes against humanity.
How many Nazis were sentenced to death in the first Nuremberg trial?
10
Who committed suicide following the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg?
Hermann Göring
During the process of de-Nazification, what was destroyed?
Symbols of Nazi rule, such as the Swastika at the Nuremberg stadium.
Evidence that de-Nazification was a failure
- There were many loop holes so that some hard-line Nazis escaped justice. Most Nazis were given amnesties after 1951.
- Many Nazis escaped punishment because they were useful in an anti-Communist role.
- Germans could produce “character references” in their defence, many of which could be brought on the black market.
- Only 1.3% of Germans in the British zone were punished. In the French zone it was 2.6%. Americans were more zealous in prosecuting.
- The size of the task was too much for the Allies who were understaffed. They increasingly handed judgements over to local German authorities.
- After 1948, the Allies’ interest moved away from de-Nazification and towards the Cold War. The Allies became more concerned about “containing” Communism.
- Too many less important Nazis were caught and punished while leading Nazis used their connections to escape justice. This created resentment and undermined the process.
- By 1951, the de-Nazification process was called to a halt and the Allies did not oppose the move.
Why did many key Nazis able to scape punishment?
- Because they were useful in anti-communist roles.
- Loop holes so even hard-line Nazis could escape justice.
- Too many less important Nazis were caught while key Nazis used their connections to escape justice.
What were most Nazis given after 1951?
Amnesties - failure of de-Nazification
What could Germans produce in their defence? (de-Nazification)
Character references - which could be bought on the black market
What percentage of Nazis in the British and French zones were punished?
Only 1.3% in the British Zone
2.6% the French Zone
Which ally was most zealous in their persecution of Nazis during de-Nazification?
America
What was the result of de-Nazification being too much for Allies and them being understaffed?
They increasingly handed judgements over to local German authorities.
What did the Allies’ interest move to alter 1948? (from de-Nazification)
The Cold War. Became more concerned about containing communism.
What created resentment and undermined the de-Nazification process?
Too many less important Nazis were caught and leading Nazis escaped using their connections.
When was the denazification process called to a halt and how did the Allies respond?
1951 - Adenauer brought the policy to an end and the allies did not oppose this move.
FAILURE
When the FRG was created, where was the its centre of government?
Bonn (which became the capital of the FRG)
How was Germany governed after WW2?
At the Potsdam Conference, it was agreed that Germany (+Berlin) was divided into four zones of occupation (administered by the USA, USSR, Britain and France). The Allies set up the ACC to make decisions across the four zones.
What was the Basic Law?
The constitution of West Germany established in 1949. It was to be temporary until there was a united Germany.
Was the Basic Law supposed to be temporary or permanent?
Temporary - until Germany was reunited.
When was the Basic Law created?
May 23rd 1949
A Parliamentary Council was set up September 1st 1948 to draw up a contemporary constitution. The FRG announced this constitution - the Basic Law - in May 1949.
What did the FRG refuse to recognise?
The communist GDR and insisted it spoke for the whole of Germany.
In 1949, was the FRG fully independent? Why?
Not fully independent as it was still under the Occupation Statute so the USA had the power to veto laws and foreign policy.
What was the Basic Law designed to ensure?
That the FRG remained democratic and stable and that it avoided the weaknesses of the Weimar Republic by ensuring that political extremism could not re-emerge.
When did the first Federal elections take place?
August 1949
When was the FRG formed?
22nd May 1949
After the first Federal election in August 1949, who won? How many seats?
The CDU/CSU emerged with a narrow victory, gaining 139 seats compared to the SPD’s 131 seats.
Who became the first chancellor of the FRG and post-war Germany?
Konrad Adenauer of the CDU in 1949
What was Adenauer’s first challenge?
To establish a stable democracy and to gather as much control as possible from the Allied authorities.
Identify the main political parties of the FRG
- Left-wing: KPD (German Communist Party) and SPD (Social Democratic Party)
- Liberal: FDP (Free Democratic Party)
- Right-wing: CDU/CSU (Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union)
CDU/CSU
Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union - centre right party. Conservative. Led by Adenauer.
SPD
Social Democratic Party - around in Weimar government. Centre left party.
FDP
Free Democratic Party - quite a liberal party. Founded in 1948 by members of former liberal political parties which existed in Germany before World War II.
What was different about the political parties in FRG compared to Weimar?
Unlike Weimar, there’s only 3 main parties, creating more stability.
Similarities in the system of government between FRG and Weimar
- Chancellor appointed by President
- Use proportional representation
- Democratic
- Power invested in the people
- Weimar constitution and Basic Law both upheld freedom of speech.
- Coalition governments (but stronger in FRG)
- Both federal states - Lander kept power over regional issues.
- Both had constitutions that upheld freedom of expression and democratic principles.
Differences in the system of government between FRG and Weimar
- Parties had to gain 5% of the vote before they represented (FRG)
- President - Weimar: had exclusive power, could dismiss Chancellor, Reichstag, pass emergency laws - FRG: limited power and mainly ceremonial (like the UK King)
- Chancellor - Weimar: easily removed by Reichstag or President. Weak position. FRG: strong positions. Could only be removed by vote “constructive vote of no confidence”
- Coalition governments made up of less parties in the FRG as smaller extremist parties were banned.
- ACC retain veto on German law in FRG.
- FRG more emphasis on individual human rights.
- Accused of being a “chancellor democracy in FRG”
- Adenauer worked to limit freedom of speech to promote political stability.
Heads of state being reversed and electoral system more representative in FRG.
What were the main feature of the Basic law?
- Equal rights to all citizens, regardless of sex, race, political views or religion.
- Free speech, the freedom to form unions or other groups, free assembly and no censorship.
- A state education for al.
- Article 20: The FRG is a democratic and social federal state. State authority is derived from the people and shall be exercised by the people through elections and other votes.
- Article 21: Political parties must conform to democratic principles. Parties which seek to undermine or abolish the democratic order or endanger the existence of the FRG shall be deemed unconstitutional and abolished.
What did Article 20 of the Basic Law state?
The FRG is a democratic and social federal state. State authority is derived from the people and shall be exercised by the people through elections and other votes.
What did Article 21 of the Basic Law state?
Political parties must conform to democratic principles. Parties which seek to undermine or abolish the democratic order or endanger the existence of the FRG shall be deemed unconstitutional and abolished.
When was Germany permanently divided between West and East?
The Federal Republic of Germany was formally established in May 1949. The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was formally established in October 1949.
What was the role of the President in the FRG?
MAINLY CEREMONIAL POWERS
The President was not directly elected but chosen by a representative Federal Convention for a maximum of two five-year terms. This prevented an anti-democratic leader.
The powers of President were limited, largely formal and symbolic, unlike Weimar.
What was the role of the Chancellor in the FRG?
Head of government and most powerful politician.
- The Chancellor was appointed by the President, but needed parliamentary approval from the Bundestag.
- Usually head of the largest party in the Bundestag.
- The Chancellor could not be dismissed unless a new Chancellor was voted in, preventing the President from appointing and dismissing a
Chancellor at will. - The Chancellor had to have parliamentary support. If not, new elections.
Unlike Weimar.
What was the Parliament in FRG?
The Bundestag - approved the Chancellor and passed the laws of the country. Elected by universal suffrage. Half of the seats allocated by proportional representation and other half on a first past the post system. Elections every 4 YEARS.
The Bundesrat helped formed the laws and was made up of representatives from the Lander. COULD VETO BUNDESTAG.
How often were elections for the Bundestag?
Every 4 years
What could the Bundesrat do?
Veto the Bundestag.
Describe the electoral system of the FRG
- ‘Representative’ democracy - popular participation was limited.
- Political parties could not be banned unless their aims were un-democratic.
- The Bundestag was elected through a combination of proportional representation and first past the post.
- Parties had to gain5% of the vote before they were represented - stopping extreme parties from taking power. Weimar - anyone could get the vote.
- Gradually, the number of small parties in the FRG declined.
How was the Bundestag elected?
Through a combination of proportional representation and first past the post.
What percentage of votes did parties have to gain before they were represented?
5%
New name for the Reichstag?
The Bundestag
How was the President in the FRG elected?
Elected by the Federal Convention
How was the Chancellor dismissed in the FRG?
Vote of no confidence if a new government was ready and waiting - no longer dismissed by President.
Describe West Germany in the decades after WW2
Developed into a peaceful, prosperous and mainly stable nation, with a Western-oriented, pro-US foreign policy. Germany became a member of NATO and enjoyed substantial economic development (the Wirtschaftswunder, or economic miracle) which produced high living standards.
Politics in the era until the mid-1960s was dominated by Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, the first elected leader of post-war Germany, and his CDU party.
What did the Basic Law see restored to Germany?
It saw the restoration of democracy to Germany.
What did the Allies retain over Germany?
A veto on German law, and the new state was not free to determine its foreign policy.
Who made up the Federal Convention? (that appointed the President in the FRG)
Half Bundestag members and half members of local state parliaments.
Describe Bundesrat in FRG (who was made up of and what could it do)
Made up of members of local state parliaments (Lander) and had a veto over legislation passed by the Bundestag.
What did a Federal Constitutional Court do?
A Federal Constitutional Court could rule on what was constitutional.
What kind of system was the FRG and what did this mean?
FRG was a federal system meaning state Parliaments were elected every four or five years and had considerable powers to enact laws at local level.
How did the Basic Law try to deal with some of the perceived flaws in the Weimar’s constitution? (in order to try to make democracy in Germany stronger and more reliable)
- The powers of the President were limited.
- Parties needed to get a minimum of 5% of the vote in order to get any representation in the Bundestag, a measure aimed at preventing small extremist parties gaining representation. Also restricted political polarisation.
- A Chancellor and his government could only be brought down by a vote of no confidence if another party was ready to govern and able to form a government that had the support of more than half of the members of the Bundestag.
- Only half of the seats in the Bundestag were determined on the basis of proportional representation, in order to try to make it easier to form stable governments.
- The constitutional court upheld basic civil rights and could rule on whether government actions were illegal
- The Basic Law also emphasised human rights and pledged the government to uphold them.
- Under Article 21, political parties who were seen to be undermining the democratic nature of the FRG could be disbanded.
- The Weimar govt had to work against these pressures from the army, trade unions, and monarchists. These groups no longer had significant power bases from which to oppose the new FRG govt.
How many seats in the Bundestag were determined on the basis of proportional representation?
Only half - to try and make more stable governments.
What groups did the FRG not have to work with? (that the Weimar govt did)
Army, trade unions and monarchists.
What was the CDU formed out of?
Out of the remnants of the Catholic and fairly conservative Centre Party.
