Opposition, control and consent, 1945-89 Flashcards
1
Q
There were bigger issues to focus on in the 1950s, what did mean for political challenge?
A
Meant political challenge against Adenauer’s governmental was less prevalent than in later decades.
2
Q
What issues existed in the 1950s that made it anti-government protest was less prevalent?
A
Initially superficial conformity due to these other bigger issues. BUT later generations were more willing to deal with the past and use violence to oppose capitalism.
- Rebuilding the government and working together in coalition governments.
- Establishing a sense of West German identity while leaving the prospect of East German unification open.
- Rebuilding the economy and the nation’s infrastructure.
- Working for closer European integration and establishing the FRG as a moderate, and not extremist, nation and member of there European community.
3
Q
How did Adenauer and his administration react to opposition?
A
They worked to exclude political opposition (especially left-wing opposition).
4
Q
1950s:
What happened in 1952?
A
The extreme right-wing Socialist Reich Party was banned under Aricle 21 of the Basic Law.
5
Q
1950s:
What happened in 1953?
A
Changes to vote allocations and seats in the Bundestag made it harder for small political parties to gain a seat (this was restricted even further in 1957).
6
Q
1950s:
What happened in 1956?
A
The German Communist Party (KPD) was declared unconstitutional in their attitude towards democratic government under Article 21.
7
Q
1950s:
Were Adenauer’s moves of excluding political opposition (e.g banning Socialist Reich Party and changing vote allocation) stabilising?
A
Yes, the moves were politically stabilising and resulted in a Bundestag that was a three-party house (CDU/CSU; FDP; SD) with shifting and cooperative coalitions.
8
Q
1950s:
At this time, who was most critical of the FRG government?
A
Left-wing sympathisers. The Social Democratic Party (SPD) were critical of Adenauer’s ‘Atlanticist’ aim.
9
Q
1950s:
What were the Social Democratic Party (SPD) critical of?
A
- Critical of Adenauer’s ‘Atlanticist’ aim to establish closer ties to the West, which may jeopardise the prospect of unification with the GDR.
- Criticised the Adenauer administration for working against the democratic spirit of the Basic Law.
- Criticised his ‘year zero’ approach to integrating Nazis into the civil service and the economy.
10
Q
1950s:
What was the largest party in the coalition government that was formed after the first elections of in August 1949?
A
The Christian Democratic Union (CDU) - not surprising as it didn’t allow the SPD (the party with the most radical political agenda) to be represented in the government, despite receiving 29.2% of the votes. The SPD were very critical of Adenauer and his ‘year zero’ approach, Atlanticist aim etc.
11
Q
1950s:
Before their disbandment in 1956, what did the KPD do?
A
Having been unable to win enough seats in the Bundestag to feel represented there, they organised communist demonstrations in the German cities.
12
Q
1950s:
In Munich 1953, what happened?
A
Approximately 6,000 communists clashed with the police, who used water cannon to disperse the marchers.
13
Q
When did the KPD organise communist demonstrations in the German cities?
A
1956 - they had been unable to win enough seats in the Bundestag to feel represented there
14
Q
When did 6,000 communists clash with the police?
A
1953 - Munich
15
Q
1950s:
What was Article 21 of the Basic Law?
A
The article stated that political parties may be freely established and their internal organisation must conform to democratic principles. However, if through their aims or behaviours a party seeks to undermine or abolish the free democratic order and endanger the existence of the Federal Republic of Germany it will be deemed unconstitutional.
16
Q
1950s:
What was the ‘year zero approach’
A
Adenauer and others argued that letting ex-Nazis work within the democratic system was the quickest way to move on from Germany’s past and establish an effective civil service. For this reason, in 1951, Article 131 was added to the Basic Law, officially allowing ex-Nazis to work in the civil service.
17
Q
What were the KPD’s reasons for opposition?
A
Criticised the government’s economic aims and, instead, emphasised the need for “German socialism”, not capitalism with land reform, a new education system, a new education system and a democratic government.
18
Q
What were the measure put in place used to overcome KPD opposition?
A
- Police - used water cannon to disperse the marchers in Munich 1953.
- 1965 - under Article 21, KPD declared unconstitutional in their attitude towards government.
- Use of BfV to investigate individuals thought to be working against Basic Law - used to disband protest movements associated with KPD.
- Employment ban.
19
Q
What were the Socialist Reich Party’s reasons for opposition?
A
- Heir to the Nazi party
- Condemned what it saw to be West German dependence on the USA.
20
Q
What were the measure put in place used to overcome Socialist Reich Party opposition?
A
- Banned under Article 21 of the Basic Law.
- Use of BfV to investigate individuals thought to be working against Basic Law -
21
Q
What were the SPD’s reasons for opposition?
A
- Critical of ‘Atlanticist’ aims to establish ties to the West and not the GDR.
- Questioned the democratic nature of Germany under Adenauer.
- ‘Year zero’ approach.
- Economic policies (e.g. wanted the nationalisation of banks, land and key industries, as well as significant social welfare policies).
22
Q
What were the measure put in place used to overcome SPD opposition?
A
The CDU under Adenauer did not allow the SPD to be represented in the government, despite receiving 29.2% of votes in the August 1949 election.
23
Q
What other reasons (on top of the government’s measures to control opposition) explain why Adenauer’s administration did not face more opposition during the 19505?
A
- General understanding that there were bigger issues to focus on which prevented people from opposing.
- 1953 - challenges to vote allocations and seats in the Bundestag made it harder for small political parties to gain seats.
24
Q
Who opposed the FRG in the 1950s and why?
A
Opposition predominantly came from political parties in the FRG:
* German Communist Party (KPD) - criticised the government’s economic aims and, instead, emphasised the need for ‘German socialism’, not capitalism, with land reform, a new education system and a democratic government.
* Socialist Reich Party - heir to the Nazi Party. Condemned what it saw to be the West German dependence on the USA.
* Social Democratic Party - critical of ‘Atlanticist’ aims to establish ties to the West not the GDR; questioned the democratic nature of Germany under Adenauer and his ‘year zero’ approach. In terms of economic policies they wanted the nationalisation of banks, land and key industries, as well as significant social welfare policies.
25
How did the government control opposition in the 1950s?
* The government used Article 21 of the Basic Law to declare the Socialist Reich Party and KPD unconstitutional in 1952 and 1956, respectively.
* The CDU under Adenaeur did not allow the SPD to be represented in the government, despite receiving 29.2% of votes in the August 1949 election.
* Two organisations called the Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz (BfV) and the Bundesnachrichtendienst (BND) were set up in 1950 and 1956, respectively, to investigate people they suspected of working against the Basic Law (both organisations were, however, restricted by the civil rights liberties granted to people under the Basic Law. They were forbidden to open mail search homes or monitor phone calls)
* In 1950, an employment ban (Berufsverbot) restricted employment in government and was initially aimed at political parties which could pose a threat to democracy (such as the KPD).
* Use of police force to disband protest movements associated with the KPD.
26
Why did Adenauer's regime not face more opposition in the 1950s?
* Bigger issues - there was a general understanding that there were bigger issues to focus on which prevented people from opposing the government of the FRG (e.g rebuilding the economy and infrastructure; establishing Germany internationally, creating political stability)
* Nature of the Basic Law - changes to voting allocations restricted the ability of extremist parties to gain representation in the Bundestag (parties had to receive at least 5% of votes to gain seats).
* Union of political parties - (e.g liberal parties forming the Free Democratic Party; faith-based groups joining the CDU) reduced polarisation of politics and, therefore, platforms for political opposition in the early years.
* Adenauer's 'chancellor democracy' - Authoritarian style and forceful management of the Bundestag; both Chancellor and Foreign Minister; forceful personality ensured coalitions worked together until 1957; worked to exclude opposition; created politically stability.
27
1950s:
How did the union of political parties e.g liberal parties forming the FDP and faith based groups joining the CDU help the government control opposition?
It reduced polarisation of politics and, therefore, platforms for political opposition in the early years.
28
1950s:
How did Adenauer's 'chancellor democracy' help the government control opposition?
Authoritarian style and forceful management of the Bundestag; both Chancellor and Foreign Minister; forceful personality ensured coalitions worked together until 1957; worked to exclude opposition; created politically stability.
29
When was the Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz (BfV) set up?
1950
30
When was the Bundesnachrichtendienst
(BND) set up?
1956
31
What two organisations were set up to investigate people they suspected of working against the Basic Law?
The Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz (BfV) and the Bundesnachrichtendienst (BND).
32
Initially, what were the BfV and the BND hampered by?
Initially, both organisations were hampered by the civil rights liberties granted to people under the Basic Law: they were forbidden to open mail, search homes or monitor phone calls.
33
However by 1968, what did the government pass that allowed the BND to use extreme measures like opening mail?
In 1968, the government managed to pass the Emergency Law, allowing the BND to use measures e.g open mail, search homes or monitor phone calls, and have wider powers of arrest and detention. The law allowed police activity, to track down terrorists.
34
1960S:
What was the situation by the 1960s?
- By the 1960s, the FRG had established itself politically and economically in Europe.
- In May 1955, the FRG had joined NATO and in March 1957, the FRG signed the Treaty of Rome to become one of the founding members of the European Economic Community (EEC) and had experienced rapid economic recovery known as the "economic recovery".
- Germany's younger generation from the post-war baby boom was being stirred by the wave of youth protest movements in the western world.
35
1960s:
Why were the youth protesting against the FRG government?
* Young people objected to the "year zero" principle which had helped Adenauer rebuild the civil service and army. They wanted to comfort confront Germany's past and objected to ex-Nazis being in positions of political power. They adopted the slogan "What did you do in the war, Daddy?", to taunt the older generation. Some felt dislocated by the widespread lack of family history as a result of the "year zero" ideology.
* Young people protested against the FRG's military - its involvement with the West through NATO and the possibility that the country might begin to build and store nuclear weapons.
* Young people joined the rising discontent with the way the USA was conducting the war in Vietnam (1954-75). For them, the USA had become the face of money grabbing, repressive and imperialist capitalism.
36
What slogan to the young people adopt to taunt the older generation?
"What did you do in the war, Daddy?"
37
Why did the youth object the "year zero" policy?
They wanted to comfort confront Germany's past and objected to ex-Nazis being in positions of political power.
Some felt dislocated by the widespread lack of family history as a result of the "year zero" ideology.
38
Why did young people protest against the FRG's military?
Protested against its involvement with the West through NATO and the possibility that the country might begin to build and store nuclear weapons.
39
What did young people protest about the USA?
The way the USA was conducting the war in Vietnam (1954-75). For them, the USA had become the face of money grabbing, repressive and imperialist capitalism.
40
1960s:
Two groups that had, as their core membership, left-wing intellectuals many of whom were students or young professionals
The Extra-Parliamentary Opposition (APO)
The German Socialist Student Union (SDS)
41
How did opposition movements change in the 1960s?
* More violent, political protest movements began to gain force in the 1960s.
* Increased demonstrations by disillusioned left-wing movements.
* Rise of political protest at social, grass-roots level (particularly among the youth who began to protest against previous generations who lived under the Nazi regime).
* Rise of active right-wing movements at a local level.
42
What was the APO?
The Extra-Parliamentary Opposition
43
What was the SDS?
The German Socialist Student Union
44
When did the Apostles materialise?
In the mid 1960s
45
When did the APO materialise?
Following the:
1. growing distrust of young intellectuals for the established, conservative government.
2. the disbanding of the KPD and other left-wing parties which could have served as a political platform from which to express dissent.
3. the reduced radicalisation of the SPD from 1959.
46
What did youth groups aim to protest about?
Political, moral and human rights within the FRG, repressive government measures and the moderate nature of the SPD
47
What did the APO aim to protest about?
The disbanding of the KPD and left-wing parties, and the reduced radicalisation of the SPD post-1959, which all could have served as a political platform from which to express dissent. Also aimed to articulate the need for “extra-parliamentary protest” with the lack of opposition in the Bundestag.
48
What made the APO feel unrepresented?
CDU and SPD coalition under Kurt Kiesinger - while the SPD's revised policies (e.g the endorsement of a social market economy) gained the party more power in government, it left people on the left wing (especially students and trade unionists) feeling unrepresented.
49
What precipitated the collapse of Erhard's CDU government?
The economic recession of 1965-66 which led to the rise of a coalition government between the CDU and the SPD under former Nazi Chancellor Kurt Kiesinger.
50
What did the student movement articulate?
A sense of protest and unease and saw the need for 'extra-parliamentary opposition' with the lack of opposition in the Bundestag.
51
Methods of the APO
Violent political protest began to gather force again and many of the APO's members supported radical theories on how to oppose the government.
52
What had the SDS (the German Socialist Student Union) been part of?
The SPD
53
Why had the SDS broken away from the SPD?
It broke away in 1961 because it felt that the party was becoming less and less radical and no longer represented the beliefs of its members, such as rearmament. Criticised the moderate nature of the SPD.
54
Radical protests of the 1960s was not always directed at political issues in the FRG but what?
At various human rights and moral issues in the world as a whole.
55
What did the SDS protest about?
* The Vietnam War
* Nuclear weapons
* Former Nazi officials (named the Auschwitz generation) holding office in government and the FRG's involvement in NATO.
56
From 1965, who was the SDS leader?
Rudi Dutschke, who some hold responsible for the escalating violence of student demonstrations.
57
What happened in 1967 re. the SDS?
During a demonstration against the human rights record of Iran following a visit from the Iranian Shah, conflict with the police escalated, resulting in the shooting of a student, Benno Ohnesorg.
58
Who was shot during demonstrations against the human rights record of Iran in 1967?
A student, Benno Ohnesorg.
59
What happened in April 1968 re. the SDS?
Rudi Dutschke was shot by a right-wing fanatic (a neo-Nazi reader of the right-wing newspaper Axel Springer which frequently criticised student protests), which sparked the 'Easter Riots', a series of attacks on offices of the Springer press all over Germany.
60
What were the 'Easter Riots'?
A series of attacks on offices of the Springer press all over Germany.
61
What sparked the 'Easter Riots'?
Rudi Dutschke was shot by a right-wing fanatic (a reader of the right-wing newspaper Axel Springer which frequently criticised student protests).
62
What did the SDS take part in?
The last major demonstration against the Emergency Law in Bonn on May 11th 1968.
63
May 11th 1968
The last major demonstration against the Emergency Law in Bonn - the SDS took part in it.
64
Why did people protest against the Emergency Law in Bonn, May 1968?
They saw it as a violation of the Basic Law's human rights principles and evidence of the "fascist tendencies" which had existed in Germany before WWII.
65
What did the 1960s see?
The rise of active right-wing movements, with the neo-Nazi NPD (National Democratic Party), founded in 1964, gaining representation in several local Länd parliaments.
66
When was the Emergency Law passed?
30th May 1968
67
What happened on 30th May 1968?
The Bundestag (by two-thirds majority vote) passed an amendment to the Basic Law.
68
What was the 1968 Emergency Law?
Among the new powers given to the German government were:
- increased powers of arrest and surveillance (such as of telephones), which could go against basic constitutional rights
- greater powers within Germany's regions resulting in centralised government control and action during times of government crisis
- the freedom to use the army inside the country to overcome emergencies.
69
What was the 1950 employment ban (Berufsverbot)?
Restricted employment in government and was initially aimed at political parties which could pose a threat to democracy e.g KPD.
70
How did people react to the Emergency Law in 1968?
It was met with fierce political debate.
71
Summarise how opposition movements changed from the 1950s to 1960s?
Although by the 1960s, the FRG had established itself politically and economically, there was more of a prevalence of political dissent and the population was engaging far more in political protest, especially the young movement such as the APO. Also rise of right-wing movements.
72
Why did political dissent become more prevalent in the FRG in the 1960s?
- Increasing polarisation/instability of politics: weaknesses of FRG governments e.g collapse of Erhard's government; rising influence of the SPD; split of the CDU between 'Atlanticists' and 'Gaullists' (wanted to focus on cooperation with the USA and East Germany, respectively).
- Unrepresented "left" in government and parliament: left-wing sympathisers were increasingly disillusioned with politics of the FRG (e.g the banning of KPD).
- Rise of a disaffected youth movement of post-WWII world: who began to question human rights and moral issues associate with the FRG and wider world (e.g Vietnam War; Nato; 'Auschwitz generation' in office).
73
Opposition in the 1960s:
Who opposed the FRG and why?
- The German Socialist Student Union (SDS) - criticised the moderate nature of the SPD, as well as various political, moral and human rights issues within the FRG and wider world (e.g passing of the Emergency Law of 1968; Nato)
- The Extra-Parliamentary Opposition (APO) - criticised the disbanding of left-wing parties and moderate nature of the SPD post-1959. Distrusted the right-wing government.
74
How did the government control opposition in the 1960s?
- Use of BfV and BND. to investigate people suspected of working against Basic Law.
- Passed the 1968 Emergency Law.
- Police e.g police violence in 1967 during a protest against human rights records of Iran and a student, Benno Ohnesorg was shot.
75
Reasons for opposition: APO
- A growing distrust of young intellectuals for the established, conservative government.
- The disbanding of the KPD and other left-wing parties which could have served as a political platform to express dissent.
- Reduced radicalisation of the SPD.
- Student movement saw the need for opposition in the Bundestag.
76
Measures put in place to overcome and restrict APO opposition
- 1968 Emergency Law passed.
- Use of Bfv and BND to investigate people suspected of working against Basic Law.
77
Reasons for opposition: SDS
- Broke away from SPD because it felt the party was becoming less and less radical and no longer represented the beliefs of its members.
- Protest was not always directed at political issues in the FRG - directed at various human rights and moral issues in the world as a whole e.g Vietnam War and former Nazis in the FRG.
78
Measures put in place to overcome and restrict SDS opposition
- Police, shooting of a student Benno Ohnesorg during demonstration against Iran.
- 1968 Emergency Law.
79
Opposition in the 1970s:
What did government pressure on protest and dissent via emergency laws and police actually do?
Reduced the amount of protests by many groups and their freedoms to protest.
80
Opposition in the 1970s:
However, what did government responses to political protests also do?
It had the effect of making some left-wing 'anti-fascist' and 'anti-imperialist' groups feel more marginalised and they increased the level of violent opposition by resorting to terrorism in the 1970s.
81
Opposition in the 1970s:
Why did some left-wing 'anti-fascist' and 'anti-imperialist' groups protest?
- They perceived the FRG to be an authoritarian and oppressive regime comparable to that of the Nazis.
- They protested against the failed de-Nazification programmed pursued by the FRG governments e.g Chancellor Kiesinger was a former Nazi party member and many former Nazi jurists were absorbed back into the judicial system.
- They protested against the FRG's association with the West's imperialist tendencies abroad.
82
Opposition in the 1970s:
What was formed in November 1969?
The West Berlin Tupamaros group
83
Opposition in the 1970s:
Describe the West Berlin Tupamaros group
They set off a series of bombs in West Berlin, and later disbanded following the police shooting and imprisonment of the group's leaders in 1971.
84
Opposition in the 1970s:
When were the Kommune I groups formed?
Late 1960s
85
Opposition in the 1970s:
What did members of the Kommune I groups try to do?
Tried to bomb the motorcade containing US President Richard Nixon on a state visit to the FRG in 1969.
86
Opposition in the 1970s:
What happened to members of the Kommune I groups after the attempted bombing of Nixon's motorcade?
They faced imprisonment.
87
Opposition in the 1970s:
What did the Socialist Patients Collective (SPK) attempt and fail to do?
Attempted and failed to bomb the train that the President of the FRG was on in February 1971. By July, members of the SPK had been absorbed into the Baader-Meinhof Gang.
88
Opposition in the 1970s:
When were members of the SPK absorbed into the Baader-Meinhof Gang by?
July 1971
89
Opposition in the 1970s:
Further terrorist activity in September 1972
Munich Olympic Games - Black September Palestinian guerrillas (NOT BAADER-MEINHOF) attacked the quarters of the Israeli team, killing two athletes and taking nine hostage. They demanded the release of the Baader-Meinhof Gang leaders. along with 234 prisoners held in Israeli jails.
90
Opposition in the 1970s:
Who were one of the most long-lived terrorist groups in the FRG?
The Baader-Meinhof gang (the Red Army Faction RAF)
91
Opposition in the 1970s:
When were the Baader-Meinhof gang formed?
Early 1970s.
92
Opposition in the 1970s:
A public poll in 1970 showed that how many Germans felt sympathy for the RAF?
1 in 5 Germans
93
Opposition in the 1970s:
What did the Red Army Faction engage in?
A series of bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, bank robberies, and shoot-outs with the police.
94
Opposition in the 1970s:
What influenced the Baader-Meinhof Gang?
Brazilian Marxists revolutionary and writer Carlos Marighella, and his publication the 'Minimanuel for the Urban Guerrilla' (published in June 1969).
95
Opposition in the 1970s:
Who did members of the RAF go and visit?
Members of the Baader-Meinhof Gang visited Jordan to train with Palestinian terrorist group, the PLO.
96
Opposition in the 1970s:
When was the RAF's first known action?
May 1970 - they attacked the Dahlem Institute for Social Research.
97
Opposition in the 1970s:
By the end of the 1970s, what was the Baader-Meinhof gang like?
Most of the gang's leaders were in prison.
98
Opposition in the 1970s:
What happened as a result of most of the Baader-Meinhof Gang being in prison by the the late 1970s?
They called for hunger strikes which resulted in the death of Holger Meins in November 1974 and triggered the bombings of the homes of several lawyers and judges involved in the gang members' prison trials.
99
Opposition in the 1970s:
What triggered the bombings of the homes of several lawyers and judges involved in the RAF prion trials?
The death of Holger Meins in 1974, who was an RAF member who died from going on hunger strike in prison.
100
Opposition in the 1970s:
What did the Baader-Meinhof gang do between 1970 and 1972?
Commit a series of bank robberies.
101
Opposition in the 1970s:
Throughout May 1972, what did the RAF do?
- Bombed the headquarters of the US Army in Frankfurt and Heidelberg.
- Bombed polices stations in Augsburg and Munich.
- Bombed Hamburg quarters of the Springer Press.
102
Opposition in the 1970s:
When were all members of the Baader-Meinhof Gang arrested and some placed in solitary confinement?
By 1975
103
Opposition in the 1970s:
After all members of the RAF were arrest by 1975, what happened to terrorist activity in West Germany?
It slowed - also partly due to government activity and partly due to a feeling that this form of protest was not achieving anything.
104
Opposition in the 1970s:
Which Chancellor faced an outbreak of terrorism directed at other governments and German institutions?
Chancellor Helmut Kohl
105
Opposition in the 1970s:
Despite terrorism slowing by the end of the 1970s, what happened in 1985?
The US airbases in Rhein-Main and Frankfurt Airport were bombed.
106
How did opposition against the FRG governments change in the 1970s?
Increased levels of left-wing violence and terrorist activity and (to a lesser extent), the 1980s targeting 'fascism' and 'imperialism'.
*EMERGENCE OF TERRORIST GROUPS.
107
Why did opposition change in the 1970s? e.g terrorism
- Govt methods of control: backlash against government 'fascist' methods used to control political opposition methods (e.g 1968 Emergency Law and increased control/surveillance across country).
- Opposition groups felt more and more marginalised from society - their voice was restricted and, therefore, resorted to acts of terrorism to make their voices heard (MAIN REASON).
- 'Imperialism' - continued cynicism towards US imperialist moves abroad (e.g Vietnam War) and FRG's association with western powers.
- De-Nazification - failed efforts of the FRG regime to pursue de-Nazification programme.
108
Reasons for opposition: Baader-Meinhof Gang
- Dissent with government
- Formed with the intention of complementing the plethora of revolutionary and radical groups across West Germany and Europe, as a more class conscious and determined force compared with some of its contemporaries.
109
Measures put in place to overcome and restrict Baader-Meinhof opposition
- 1968 Emergency Law to catch and prosecute terrorists.
- 1972 Anti-Radical Decree.
- By 1975, all of the Baader-Meinhof Gang were arrested and some placed in solitary confinement.
- After 1975, terrorist activity began to slow due to government activity/involvement.
- Organisations e.g BfV, BND, BEFA, GSG-9.
- Links with SAS and Delta Force.
110
Opposition in the 1970s:
What was the 1972 Anti-Radical Decree?
Political vetting of anyone applying for a public sector job, from teachers to postmen to civil servants.
111
Who opposed the FRG in the 1970s and why?
- Left wing 'anti-fascist' and 'anti-imperialist' groups felt increasingly marginalised and increased the level of violent opposition in the FRG by resorting to terrorism in the 1970s. They protested against an authoritarian and oppressive regime comparable to that of the Nazis, the failed de-Nazification programme (e.g Chancellor Kiesinger), and the FRG's association with the West's imperialist tendencies abroad.
- Kommune I groups faced imprisonment after trying to bomb the motorcade containing President Richard Nixon on a state visit to the FRG.
- Baader-Meinhof Gang (Red Army Faction) engaged in a series of bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, bank robberies and shoot-outs with the police.
112
What was similar about the FRG and Weimar re opposition?
As in the Weimar Republic, the governments of the FRG came down more heavily on left-wing extremists, although it could be argued that left-wing groups posed more of a threat to the regime.
113
When was Beobachtende Fahndung (BEFA) introduced?
1977
114
Why was the FRG in a difficult position when dealing with extremists?
The government had to balance the dilemma of upholding democracy and free speech whilst resisting groups trying to overthrow them.
115
Why were there concerns over the 1968 Emergency Law?
It seemed similar to Article 48 and thus people were worried it would undermine democracy.
116
By the end of the 1970s how much terrorism was there?
- There was far less terrorism as BFV and BND did successfully fight it.
- But it has to be considered that it was likely the governments actions that resulted in terrorism in the first place.
117
What mutually exclusive article did Adenauer pass that opposed this Berufsverbot (employment ban)?
Article 131 in May 1951 that allowed ex-Nazis in the civil service.
118
Why was BEFA useful for the FRG?
It was a system that gave the BND centralised access to all police information in the FRG.
119
When was the Grenzschutzgruppe 9 (GSG-9) formed?
In 1972, after the shooting of Israeli Olympic athletes
120
What was the GSG-9?
A special operations unit to act against terrorists. It had close links with the British SAS and US Army's Delta Force, and operated worldwide.
121
Example of successful mission of GSG-9
October 17th 1977, a team successfully rescued hostages on a plane which had been hijacked on the way to Frankfurt.
122
Examples of ways the government worked to restrict the work extremists could do
- 1950 employment ban (Berufsverbot)
- 1972 Anti-Radical Decree (Radikalenerlass)
123
How did the government control opposition in the 1970s?
- 1968 Emergency Law to catch and persecute terrorists.
- BfV and BND to investigate those perceived to be working against the Basic Law.
- Introduced BEFA system that gave the BND centralised access to all police information in the FRG.
- After shooting of Israeli athletes in 1972, the GSG-9 was established as a special operations unit to act against terrorists.
- Extension of the 1950 employment ban.
- January 1972 Anti-Radical Decree.
124
Overall AIM of opposition in the FRG period
Overall aim was to protest against the government, Adenauer and worldwide issues. Disrupt the government.
125
Similarities of aims of opposition in Nazi and FRG Germany
Both regimes faced significant opposition from youth groups, and aims were similar to some extent e.g they were both campaigns against undemocratic/oppressive regimes, to overcome cultural repression/moral issues/authoritarian regimes/.
126
METHODS of FRG opposition
Took the form of anti-government protest and worldwide issues demonstrations and terrorism. There was more of a prevalence of political dissent, and the population were engaging far more in political/moral protest. More violent political protest began to gain force in the 1960s.
127
Although anti-democratic parties were banned, was there still opposition?
Yes, opposition and anti-government protests existed. Demonstrations and political protest/dissent in the 1960s was far more prevalent, and the population was engaging far more in political protest. More violent political force began to take force in the 1960s, with terrorist activity in the 1970s
128
Similarities of methods of opposition in Nazi and FRG Germany
Overall, methods change as opposition was not allowed in Nazi period. Bomb plots and slight terrorism did exist in Nazi Germany. However, both regimes contained violent protest particularly at the end of each time period as disillusionment grew with each government.
129
How successful was overcoming opposition in the FRG?
A range of measures helped the FRG deal with opposition, and there was little support for student protests and terrorism. Student protests faded. Right wing groups were less successful.
However, RAF continued its activities into the 90s. Government come down hard on opposition – arguably increasing opposition.
130
How far did anti-government protest change completely between 1933 and 1989?
Yes, anti-government protest changed in the sense that protest was not allowed and was repressed by the Nazis to a greater extent than under the FRG BUT in some ways protest was similar – e.g anti-government protests tended to come from left-wing groups and student/youth groups who were protesting against fascism and using increasingly violent methods to oppose the government.
131
How could you describe the government's response to opposition in the FRG?
'The constitutional and legal response to political extremism'.
132
What evidence is there of support for democracy? (1949-1989)
- The level of turnout in the FRG was high, indicating that a large proportion of the population wanted to participate in the democratic process. The only time the turnout was less than 84% was the first election in 1949.
- By the 1960s, surveys showed the majority of German people felt that democracy was the best form of government for the FRG.
- In Britain between 1949 and 1989, the voter turnout was always lower than that of the FRG. Using this as a measure, there was a significant level of support for democracy in West Germany.
- In the 1960s, the younger generations of the FRG became impatient with the ‘year zero’ policy and strongly protested against the government's failings in the de-Nazification programme. Shows support for democracy and not govt.
- People protested against the shift to the policy of Ostpolitik (establishing relations with East Germany), endorsed by governments from the late 1960s, if it meant establishing relations with the USSR - which was perceived as a repressive communist regime. Shows support for a democracy.
- People demonstrated against the changes that the government wanted to make which would restrict democracy and the civil liberties upheld by the Basic Law e.g the protest movements against the passing of the Emergency Law in 1968.
- Members of the public marched in support for democracy and against repressive regimes in other countries.
133
Evidence which indicates there was support for democracy 1949-89:
What was the level of turnout for elections like in the FRG?
The level of turnout for elections was high, indicating that a large proportion of the population wanted to participate in the democratic processes. The only time the turnout was less than 84% was in the first 1949 election.
134
Evidence which indicates there was support for democracy 1949-89:
When was the only time where voter turnout was less than 84%?
In the first 1949 election.
135
Evidence which indicates there was support for democracy 1949-89:
By the 1960s, what did surveys show?
That the majority of German people felt that democracy was the best form of government for the FRG.
136
Evidence which indicates there was support for democracy 1949-89:
In Britain between 1949-89, what was voter turnout?
Always lower than that of the FRG (it only went above 79% twice). Using this as a measure, there was a significant level of support for democracy in West Germany.
137
Evidence which indicates there was support for democracy 1949-89:
What did research by the Allensbach Institute (set up in 1947 to conduct surveys of public attitudes) show?
Showed that the number of people who believed that the members of the Bundestag represented public interest doubled between 1951 and 1964.
138
What had the people experienced during the previous regime (Nazis)?
Oppression, stopped having political views, lack of freedom and told that the state was more important than the individual. Democracy was taught as weak.
139
What did the Allies agree at Potsdam regarding the FRG?
Allies all agreed to restore democracy in principle (but what type of democracy was undecided).
140
What was people's previous experience of democracy?
Not great, in the Weimar Republic.
141
What Chancellor was particularly popular among West Germans?
Willy Brandt - the 'Chancellor of domestic reforms', despite only being in power for 4 years.
142
Evidence which indicates there was support for democracy 1949-89:
What did research by the Allensbach Institute show? re monarchy
Public support for the restoration of the monarchy fell from 1/3 to 1/10.
143
Evidence which indicates there was support for democracy 1949-89:
In the 1960s, what did the younger generations of the FRG become impatient with?
The 'year zero' policy and strongly protested against the governments' failings in the de-Nazification programme. (Support for democracy, government!!)
144
Evidence which indicates there was support for democracy 1949-89:
What did people demonstrate against?
The changes that the government wanted to make which would restrict democracy and the civil liberties upheld by the Basic Law e.g the protest movements against the passing of the Emergency Law in 1968. (Support for democracy and not govt!!)
145
Evidence which indicates there was support for democracy 1949-89:
What did people march in support for?
Members of the public marched in support for democracy and against repressive regimes in other countries e.g people protested against the government's diplomatic and trade relations with South Africa under Apartheid and Greece under military rule (Junta ruled Greece from 1967).
146
Evidence which indicates there was support for democracy 1949-89:
Protests against Ostpolitik
People protested against the shift to the policy of Ostpolitik, endorsed by governments from the late 1960s, if it meant establishing relations with the USSR - which was perceived as a repressive communist regime.
147
What evidence is there of lack of support for democracy (1949-1989)?
- Under the 'year zero' policy, the education system in the FRG was slow to distribute democratic ideas. By 1947, 85% of school teachers in Bavaria who had lost they jobs through de-Nazification were back at work. The same was true in universities.
- In 1961, only 1/3 of all students in the University of Frankfurt believed in the future of democracy.
- People started thinking that de-Nazification was not as necessary - shown by US opinion polls.
- The 1960s saw the rise of active right-wing movements, with the neo-Nazi NPD (National Democratic Party), founded in 1964, gaining representation in several local Länd parliaments.
- Many former Nazi jurists were absorbed back into the judicial system. In some counties, up to 95% of all jurists were former Nazis.
- The Law for the Prevention of Hereditary Diseases was not repealed until 1974.
- A public poll showed that 1 in 5 Germans felt some sympathy for the terrorist organisation, the Baader-Meinhof Gang.
148
Evidence which indicates there was a lack of support for democracy 1949-89:
By 1947, what percentage of school teachers in BAVARIA who had lost their jobs through de-Nazification were back at work?
85% - the same was true in universities.
149
Summarise student movement opposition
Lacked support from most of wider society and influenced waned in the late 1960s.
150
What could explain why opposition movements were limited?
- Exhaustion
- Rising prosperity
- Nature of Basic Law
- Reduced polarisation of politics
151
Evidence which indicates there was a lack of support for democracy 1949-89:
University of Frankfurt
In 1961, only 1/3 of all students at the University of Frankfurt believed in the future of democracy. (Although this could be a lack of support for govt).
152
Evidence which indicates there was a lack of support for democracy 1949-89:
Between 1945 and 1949, what did US opinion polls suggest?
That between 1/2 and 2/3 of the public thought de-Nazification was necessary. However this fell to under 1/4 in 1951 i.e people didn't think punishing Nazis was as necessary anymore... Shows support for govt.
153
Evidence which indicates there was a lack of support for democracy 1949-89:
What did the 1960s see?
The rise of active right-wing movements, with the neo-Nazi NPD (National Democratic Party), founded in 1964, gaining representation in several local Länd parliaments.
154
Evidence which indicates there was a lack of support for democracy 1949-89:
Who was absorbed back into the judicial system?
Many former Nazi jurists were absorbed back into the judicial system. In some counties, up to 95% of all jurists were former Nazis and some lacked any incentive to make amends for the past.
155
Evidence which indicates there was a lack of support for democracy 1949-89:
In some counties, what percentage of jurists were former Nazis?
Up to 95%
NOT GOOD
156
Evidence which indicates there was a lack of support for democracy 1949-89:
When was the Law for the Prevention of Hereditary Diseases repealed?
1974!
^ The judiciary were responsible for upholding a number of laws reminiscent of the old Nazi era.
157
Aim of RAF
End consumerist capitalist society/anti Vietnam war through radical action.
158
Describe support for the RAF
About 15% of the public were sympathetic until they got involved in kidnappings and assassinations.
159
How many people were murdered by the RAF?
28 killed and many more injured. Bombings continued into the 1980s.
160
When was the RAF dissolved?
1998
Counter terrorist groups deployed to deal with them e.g GSG-9
161
Neo Nazi
Unified under the National Democratic Party in 1964, never achieved 5% of vote so no representation in Bundestag but did have some success at local levels. Had a growing dislike of GW and fear of depression.
162
Green Party
Peaceful outlet for opposition to Christian Democrats and SPD. Feminists often involved. Main reason why less extremist activity.
163
Why didn't the government use emergency powers 1945-49?
Due to the Statute of Occupation which allowed occupying powers to take control in emergencies.
164
How long did the Emergency Law last?
Lasted for 6 months only and had to get the approval from the Bundestag and state governments.
165
Example of how Brandt and Schmidt took a hard line vs terrorism
- Extended employment ban
- Gave RAF members in prison periods solitary confinement
- GSG-9 more focus on far-right groups in the 1980s.
166
When did support for the FRG decline?
In times of economic crisis.
167
Describe protest from 1960s into 1970s
In the 1960s a student protest movement developed, influenced by ideas of the New Left, and some of its more radical adherents morphed into supporters and proponents of terrorism in the 1970s and 1980s.
