Political And Government Change 1918-89 Flashcards
1
Q
How Was Pre-War Germany Governed?
A
- Prussia dominated the Reich as the kaiser was the king of Prussia
- Reich = empire
- the states kept some power
- the Reich had a common currency + tax system + transport and communication system + foreign policy
- Germany was governed by a chancellor + Bundestrat + Reichstag
- bundestrat = council of reps from each state that dealt with federal matters
- reichstag = elected parliament that approved laws and taxes
2
Q
Political strain when Germany went to war in 1914?
A
- parties in the Reichstag represented different political views
- Reichstag had made a political truce to support Kaiser Wilhelm II and his military high command
- Kaiser was a bad military strategist
- military high command were led by Paul Von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff and they ran Germany as a military dictatorship instead
3
Q
Consequences of military dictatorship?
A
- Reichstag still met but the high command ignored it
- almost led Germany to economical + military collapse
- Ludendorff suggested to the Kaiser that a change in government might help - army leadership stepped down - referred to as the Revolution from Above
4
Q
New Governments
A
- new government led by Prince Max of Baden opened negotiations with Allies
- SPD threaten to withdraw support for new gov. If Kaiser didn’t abdicate
- 9 November 1918 Prince Max announced Kaiser Wilhelm’s abdication - fled to Holland
- after abdication SPD led by Friedrich Ebert + Philipp Scheidemann withdraw support for Prince Max
- SPD replaced Prince Max’s gov. with their own
- 11 November German delegates met with the Allies representatives in Compiegne and signed the peace agreement
5
Q
The Treaty of Versailles
A
- signed on 28 June 1919
- referred to as a Diktat - a dictated peace
6
Q
Land lost due to Treaty of Versailles
A
- all colonies overseas
- Chinese ports
- all the land gained at the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
- Upper Silesia
- Alsace - Lorraine
- Eupen and Malmedy
- areas rich in coal and iron
- Anschluss forbidden with Austria
7
Q
Military Consequences of the Treaty of Versailles
A
- Rhineland became a demilitarised buffer zone for France
- German army was limited to 100k troops that couldn’t leave Germany
- not allowed ant tanks or heavy artillery
- not allowed any submarines
- German fleet not allowed warships over 10k tonnes
- not allowed an airforce
8
Q
Other terms of the Treaty of Versailles
A
- reparations fixed at 6 Billion pounds 1921
- war guilt clause Article 231 of the Treaty
9
Q
Political unrest under Max’s Government
A
- they extended the vote to all men
- declared the ministers and army responsible to the gov. not the Kaiser
- 28 October 1918 the navy refused to set off on a suicide mission against the British fleet
- the Spartacists wanted revolution like in Russia
- workers’ and soldiers’ councils were set up - some like the idea of Russia’s Soviets
- on 8 November Bavaria broke away from Germany and declared itself a republic
- Prince Max’s gov. lasted less than a month
10
Q
The Council of People’s Representatives
A
- new gov set up on 10 November 1918 - led by socialists groups in power
- SPD led by Friedrich Ebert and the USPD led by Hugo Hasse
- Ebert become chancellor with a cabinet of SPD + USPD members
- faced same problems as previous gov + worsened by a month of unrest
11
Q
Ebert - Groener Pact
A
- 9 November 1918
- SPD + USPD unable to gain support of smaller parties + agree with each other
-
12
Q
Humiliation of Treaty of Versailles
A
- 11 November 1918 Matthias Erzberger of the German delegation signed the armistice
- Allies told Germans they couldn’t take part in treaty negotiations
- parties began to form to try to gain votes in the new Reichstag
13
Q
Changes made by and in the government
A
- 8 hour working day
- allowed independent trade unions
- set up help for ex-soldiers to find work
- widened health and unemployment benefits
- on 19 December they decided elections would be held on 19 January 1919
- rift between SPD + USPD grew thus some council members resigned
- many USPD members joined the KPD
14
Q
The Spartacist Union
A
- Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg broke away from the USPD in December 1918 and formed the Spartacist Union
- they hoped for a revolution like in Russia
- they wanted the cancellation of the National Assembly + power transferred to soldier and worker councils
- workers’ militias would replace the police and army
15
Q
The Spartacist Revolt
A
- the revolt began in Berlin on 5 January
- newspaper offices were taken over + revolutionary committee set up
- poorly organised
- crushed by the Freikorps troops led by General Walther Von Luttwitz
- members of the Horse Guards division of the army murdered Liebknecht + Luxemburg
on 15 January 1919 - Ebert moved the government from Berlin to Weimar for safety
16
Q
Freikorps
A
- first formed in December 1918 after WW1
- anti-communist volunteer groups
- demobilised soldiers
- funded by industrialists who feared a communist uprising
17
Q
Private Armies and assassinations
A
- many political parties had their own private armies in 1919
- the SPD had their own group called the Sozi
- from 1919-22 there were 376 political murders
- 356 murdered committed by right-wing extremists from political paramilitary organisations
- October 1919 Hugo Hasse the USPD leader was shot outside the Reichstag
- the Organisation Consul was a group that committed the murder of two important gov. officials that were involved with the Treaty of Versailles
- they killed Matthias Erzberger in August 1921 + Walter Rathenau in June 1922
18
Q
Creation of the Weimar Constitution
A
- elections occurred on 19 January 1919
- 82.7% of electors voted - showed that people wanted to take part in choosing the gov.
- SPD didn’t get majority and so had to form a coalition with the Center Party + DDP
- other parties had seats in the Reichstag ( and so could vote) but weren’t part of the government
19
Q
German National People’s Party
A
- DNVP
- created from older conservative parties
- conservative + nationalist + monarchist + supported army
- didn’t want social reform + disliked idea of republic
- many members were wealthy landowners + anti-Semitic
20
Q
German People’s Party
A
- DVP
- led by Gustav Stresemann
- moderately conservative + nationalist + supported army + against social reform + wanted economy fixed
- restructured from the older National Liberals in 1919
- accepted the republic but didn’t support
- members were the wealthy industrial middle class
21
Q
The Centre Party
A
- long established + largely Catholic + defended Church in policies + opposed communism
- had members of all social groups
- conservative BUT supported social reform
- posters showed the horrors of communism
22
Q
German Democrats
A
- DDP
- newly formed in 1918
- liberal + supported republic + wanted a more representative constitution
- members were educated professionals
- often part of a coalition
- wanted army reform + regulation of industry to improve workers’ rights
23
Q
Social Democrats
A
- SPD
- largest Party in the Reichstag from 1919-29
- long established + republican + moderate social reform
- not anti-monarchist before the war
- split into SPD and USPD in 1917
- against revolution + head of the post-war gov.
- liberal working class following + workers’ rights
- hampered by having to please so many groups
24
Q
Independent Social Democrats
A
- USPD
- split from SPD in 1917
- more radical
- Rosa Luxemburg + Karl Liebknecht had been part of the USPD before forming the Spartacist Union
- wanted social reform + equality for all
25
German Communist Party
- **KPD**
- set up in 1919
- wanted a workers’ revolution + establish communist state + abolish private ownership
- poor + unemployed following - hoped for a better future
26
Structure of the Weimar Constitution
- *7 October* Ebert gave speech to the new assembly about victory for democracy
- *11 February* Ebert elected as **President** by **277 votes to 51 votes**
- government still meeting in Weimar as Berlin was unsafe
- the Weimar Constitution was passed by the National Assembly on *31 July 1919*
27
Government : President
- elected by vote every **7** years
- chosen as a person not as a party representative
- chooses the **Chancellor**
- under *Article 48* can pass emergency decrees
- can take control of army in an emergency
- can dismiss the Reichstag and call for new elections
28
Government : Chancellor
- chooses ministers
- with his ministers, he presents laws the the Reichstag
- needs a majority in the Reichstag to pass a law
29
Government : Reichstag
- elected by a secret ballot of all electors every **4** years
- votes cast for a party not a person
- parties get **1** seat for every **60k** votes
- vote sorted by proportional representation
- have the power to pass laws
30
Government : Länder
- **18** local regions which each had a parliament
- they ran their own education + police + judiciary
- federal laws override the law of the Land
- Prussia no longer had a special status among the states
31
Government : Reichstrat
- members sent by the **18 Länder**
- could veto a law passed by the Reichstag unless the Reichstag law had a 2/3 majority or more
32
Government : Cabinet
- chosen from the ministers
- chosen by the Chancellor
- formulates laws to the Reichstag
33
Shifts cause confusion
- in *1920* the USPD split and some members left to join the KPD
- Adolf Hitler made a point to use simple slogans + target specific groups to avoid confusion
- which is why the NSDAP won many votes as it was easy to understand
34
Proportional Representation
- people voted for a party in one of 35 large electoral areas rather than a specific person in their own area only
- the area’s representative in the Reichstag was chosen from the Party list
- if a member died or reigned then the next person in the list took over
- many felt like the politicians didn’t care specifically about them
35
Impossibility of a Majority
- all Weimar Chancellors had to form governments from coalitions
- from *1919-23* there were **9** different coalition governments that were all short lived
- different parties in the coalition had different views- a lot of time spent arguing over policies
- when coalitions broke down - the Chancellor asked the President to rule using **Article 48**
- made it seem like the government was constantly in crisis
36
Overcoming Challenges
- the Weimar gov. stayed in power despite all its problems
- the Reichstag kept meeting and so the President didn’t need rule by decree
- some right-wing politicians kept pushing for the new President to rule by decree
- **Paul Von Hindenburg** had been elected as President - had been in the **military high command** in WW1
- PVH was a strong supporter of the Kaiser + imperial rule + favoured an authoritarian rule
37
Economic Recovery 1924-29
- Germany reached agreements with the other countries
- it began to restore its position abroad + undo some terms of the Treaty of Versailles
- mostly due to **Gustav Stresemann** (DVP leader) who urged parties to work together
- Stresemann convinced that Germany needed a ‘great coalition’
- believed that economic recovery + peace relation were important for stability
38
Gustav Stresemann overview
- chancellor in *1923*
- foreign minister from *1924-29*
- managed to hold together a coalition of the DVP + Centre Party + SPD + DDP for much of his time
- he formed working relations based on trust with the leaders of the Parties
39
Political violence died down
- between *1924-29* no major political figures were assassinated
- people began to accept the Weimar Government as the official Political system
- support for extremist parties decreased between *May to December 1924*
- communists + Nazis gained support as conditions worsened in *1928*
- between *1924-29* there were only **6** coalition governments
- Stresemann died in *1929*
40
Public feeling about the Weimar Government
- disliked the gov. for the association between it and the Treaty of Versailles
- **President Hindenburg** (elected in 1925) was the first to voice the ‘**stab in the back**’ theory - which he knew was false
- many believed that the German Army could’ve won if they weren’t betrayed by the **November Criminals** - theory contributed to unpopularity of the government
- Hindenburg’s popularity was due to his pre-republic position - wasn’t committed to the gov. truly
- Preferred to govern by decree and sideline the Reichstag
41
Economic problems and the Gov’s failure to deal with them
- *1929* **Wall Street Crash** led to the US having economic problems + economic depression
- USA had been lending money to help countries like Germany to recover post-war
- USA asking for the loans to be repayed + stopped giving out loans
- led to other European countries falling into a **Depression**
- price rise + lower wages + unemployment
- gov. failed to agree on an economic policy to help = situation worsening
- support for extremist political parties rose - such as they Nazis + communists
42
Coalition Failure
- Hindenburg didn’t want to keep chancellors who couldn’t agree on an economic policy
- changing chancellors = disorganised government
- parties found it harder to work together
- **SPD** refused to take part in any more coalitions
- Hindenburg forced to rule by decree using **Article 48**
- *July 1930 to 1932 elections* **109 laws** created by the chancellor **Bruning** through the presidential decree vs only **29** laws passed by the Reichstag
- three chancellors + several elections in an attempt to find a gov. that would work
43
Fall of Chancellor Muller 1930
- Hindenburg wanted to replace Muller after **Young Plan** passed
- gov divided on how to deal with **economic slump** - unemployment contributions increase or not
- SPD wanted **increased benefits** vs DVP wanted **relief benefit cuts**
- *March 1930* **Muller resigns** when **Hindenburg refuses use of Article 48** to support him
44
Appointment of Brüning as Chancellor
- *March 1930* Hindenburg appoints Brüning as Chancellor - **centre-right gov** set up - without majority
- *July 1930* **Reichstag rejects gov’s new finance bill** - Brüning issues Bill through Article 48
- Reichstag demand withdrawal of Finance Bill
- **Brüning convinces Hindenburg to dissolve Reichstag** - in hopes of more support in new Reichstag
45
September 1930 Reichstag Election
- increase in votes for extremist parties
- Nazis achieved **107 seats** + KPD achieved **77 seats**
- harmed the effective working of the Reichstag
- frightened foreigners withdraw **800 million marks** in **investment funds** from Germany
46
Brüning’s gov struggles
- relied heavily on **presidential decrees**
- SPD tolerated Brüning’s gov as an alternative to Hitler
- **Hoover Moratrium** on *I July 1931* - international agreement - suspended Germany’s reparation payments
- attempted reflation through **public works + land reforms**
- *April 1932* **banned the SA** to try to control violence
47
March - April 1932 Presidential Election
- **Hindenburg** supported by **Left + Centre** defeats Hitler
- Hitler gained **37%** of the vote - people believed the Nazi Party must be included in the gov
48
Fall of Brüning’s government
- **General Schleicher** turned against Brüning
- Schleicher was willing to co-operate with Nazis
- Brüning’s proposal to **break up bankrupt Prussian estates** lead to **Hindenburg dismissing** him in *May 1932*
49
The formation of Papen’s government
- *May 1932*
- Schleicher convinced Hindenburg to appoint **Franz Von Papen** to form a non-party gov of **national concentration** with **elites + barons**
- **new gov had no members of the Reichstag**
- seen as a **presidential government**
50
Papen’s coup against Prussia
- *June 1932* Papen **lifted SA ban**
- *July 1932* used emergency powers to **depose Socialist-led gov in Prussia**
- Reich Chancellor become **Prussian Minister-President**
- Reich Commissioner became **Prussian Interior Minister**
- agreed to Hitler’s calls for new elections
51
Reichstag elections
- **Hindenburg dissolved Reichstag** due to **deadlock** - holds new election in *July 1932*
- **extremist parties made more gains**
- **Nazis + Communists = over half the Reichstag seats** - Nazis got **37%** of the votes
- Hitler demand to be made **Chancellor** with an Enabling Act to pass decrees - Hindenburg refuses + calls him a **bohemian corporal**
52
Vote of no confidence
- *September 1932* the Reichstag voted **no confidence** in Papen by **512 votes to 42**
- Hindenburg dissolves Reichstag the next day
- Papen + Hindenburg initially planned to not call a new election - **Schleicher persuades Hindenburg**
53
November 1932 election
- Nazis lost **2 million** votes
- KPD made gains
54
Schleicher’s government
- *December 1932* Schleicher persuaded Hindenburg to dismiss Von Papen and elect him
- made the Nazi **Gregor Strasser** the **Vice-Chancellor** - instead of Hitler
- developed Brüning’s **land resettlement schemes**
55
Lack of support for Schleicher
- Schleicher failed to gain support - **alienated the elite**
- Papen met with Hitler multiple times in *January 1933*
- **Hitler insisted on wanting to be Chancellor - with Papen as Vice**
- Hindenburg’s son **Oskar** + elites favoured a Hitler-Papen gov
56
The appointment of Hitler
- **16 January 1933**
- Hindenburg refused to back Schleicher’s request to **rule by decree + suspend elections**
- Hindenburg appoints Hitler as Chancellor with Papen as Deputy
- only allowed **two other Nazis** in the Cabinet - of **12**
57
The Nazi 25 Point Programme
- *February 1920* Hitler presents a 25-point Program to a Nazi Party meeting
- mixture of socialist + nationalist + anti-Semitic Points
- Points such as **abolishement Treaty of Versailles** + **no Jews can be German citizens**
58
Nazi appeal
- **fear of communism** so **BUSINESSMEN** gave **money** to the Nazis
- **middle-class** were generally quite traditional and so **didn’t support Weimar democracy** - Hitler promised a strong gov
- **nationalists** blamed the **Versailles Treaty + reparations** for the depression - Hitler promised jobs
- **rural areas** - some **land reform** promised + **blamed Jews**
59
Nazi propaganda for appeal
- **Führer cult** - Hitler was always portrayed as Germany’s saviour – would **rescue the country from depression**
- **Volksgemeinschaft** (people’s community) - Nazis would create **one German community** that would make religion or social class less relevant to people
- **Scapegoating the Jews** (and others) for Germany’s ills - Jews were often portrayed as sub-human, or as a **threat to both the racial purity and economic future** of the country
60
Hitler’s weaknesses
- Chancellor post was **replaceable**
- only **two Nazis** in a cabinet of **12**
- Hitler’s coalition **didn’t have a majority** in the Reichstag
- **Army + Trade Unions** were powerful + could break the gov.
61
Hitler’s strengths
- the Nazis were the **largest political party**
- **fear of communist coup** meant the conservatives were forced to work with Hitler
- Nazi party had access to resources of the state
- **Göring** was responsible for the **police**
- **Goebbels** exploited **propaganda opportunities**
- Hitler was a **political tactician**
62
The Legal Revolution
- March 1933 Elections
- Reichstag Fire
- Day of Potsdam
- Enabling Act
63
The Reichstag Election events
- *5 March 1933* was the actual **election date**
- Hitler thought new elections would **increase Nazi vote** + enhance his status
- Nazis used **violence + terror** + broke up Socialist + Communist meetings
- **69 dead** during the **5 week** campaign
- *20 February 1933* supported by **20 industrialists** who promised Hitler **3 million Reichsmark**
64
The Reichstag Fire
- *27 February 1933*
- young Dutch communist **Van Der Lubbe**
- on the *28th February* Hindenburg signed the **Decree for the Protection of the People and the State** - most **civil + political** liberties suspended + **central gov power strengthened**
- justification of decree was the **threat posed by the communists**
- **hundreds** of anti-nazis arrested - last week of campaign
65
March 1933 election result
- high turnout of **88%
- nazis only secured **43.9%** of the vote - **288 seats** - disappointing
- Hitler claimed majority with help of **52 seats** from the **Nationalists***
66
The Day of Potsdam
- *21st March 1933* - **Potsdam Garrison Church**
- **Goebbels** orchestrates ceremony to celebrate **opening of the new Reichstag**
- **Hindenburg + Crown Prince + Army generals** present
- Hitler aligned **National Socialism** with **Old Germany** - through speech
- **millions** of people turned up + cheered
67
What was the Enabling Act
- effectively do away with **parliamentary procedure + legislation**
- transfer full powers to the Chancellor
- would last **4 years**
68
Enabling Bill Voting
- *23 March 1933*
- new Reichstag met in the **Kroll Opera House**
- **communists refused admittance** by SA
- SA + SS inside and outside buildings
- Hitler gave speech on **respecting Christian Church values** - to secure votes
- only **Social Democrats vote against** -*444 votes to 94*
69
Gleichschaltung
- degeneration of Weimar democracy into the Nazi state system
- **co-ordination**
- Nazifying of German society
70
Co-ordination of Federal States
- *31 March 1933* - regional parliaments **landage** were **dissolved + reformed** with **Nazi majority**
- *7 April 1933* - creation of **Reich Governors** who were often the local party leader **Gauleiters** with full powers
- *January 1934* - **regional parliaments abolished** - federal gov + governors subordinated to the authorities of the **Minister of the Interior**
71
Threat of trade unions
- mass membership
- strong connections with **Socialism + Catholicism**
- *1920* **General Strike** to end the **Kapp Putsch**
- organised labour **opposed Nazism + dictatorship**
72
Co-ordination of Trade Unions
- Nazis declared *1 May* **national holiday** - traditional day **celebrating socialist labour**
- *2 May 1933* **trade union premises occupied** by the SS + SA + **union funds confiscated** + leaders arrested and sent to early concentration camps like **Dachau**
- **trade unions banned** + all workers absorbed into the **German Labour Front** - **DAF** led by **Robert Ley**
- DAF was the largest organisation in Nazi Germany with **22 million members** - instrument of control - **removed the right for workers to negotiate wages + conditions of work**
73
Coo-ordination of Political Parties
- Communists outlawed since Reichstag Fire
- **Social Democrats assets seized** after trade unions banned + party banned on *22 June 1933*
- most of the major remaining parties **willingly dissolve** by **late June 1933* - Nationalists too
- Catholic Centre Party dissolves on *5 July 1933*
- formal decree on *14 July 1933* **proclaiming Nazi Party as only legal Party in Germany**
74
Position of the SA
- SA represented the **radical + left wing + working-class**
- placed emphasis on the **socialist elements** of the Party
- played a vital role in **controlling the streets + public** - using violence
- many members **embittered + frustrated** over the limited nature of the Nazi revolution
- leader **Ernst Rohm** called for a **Second Revolution**
75
Battleship Deutschland secret agreement
- Hitler made a deal with generals **Blomberg + Fritsch + Raedar**
- would remove Rohm = **army support Hitler as President** after Hindenburg
- secret agreement
76
Influential people against Rohm / SA
- Benito Mussolini - warned Hitler of the **violent nature of the SA**
- Von Papen - gave a **speech about ending SA excess**
- Hindenburg - demanded an end to the SA power or would **declare martial law**
77
Operation Hummingbird
- Himmler + Goring made a plan to remove Rohm / SA
- drew up death lists
78
Night of the Long Knives
- *30 June 1934*
- approx. **200** killed
- murdered **Von Schleicher - former Chancellor + Gregor Strasser + Von Kahr**
- the SA members that were rounded up were taken to the **Stadelheim Prison** + shot
- **Rohm was executed**
79
Effect of the Night of the Long Knives
- German army aligned with Nazi Party - swore **oath of allegiance** directly to Hitler
- SA become **ceremonial + purely symbolic**
- **SS rose in power**
- Hindenburg died *2 august 1934* - Hitler merged **position of President + Chancellor = Fuhrer**
80
Nature of the Nazi Government
- the Reichstag remained but only passed **7 laws** between *1934 - 45*
- **civil service purged of jews** and opponents in **1933**
- Hitler had kept non-Nazi ministers before the **one-party system** - illusion of continuity
- *1934* the **Bureau Ribbentrop** operated alongside the foreign ministry
- created new authorities like the **Reich Propaganda Ministry**
81
Volksgemeinschaft
- means **people’s community**
- the nation **worked together for the greater good** of the nation
- expectation to **obey the nazi gov**+ **make sacrifices** for the nation
82
Nazi gov feature: leadership
- the state operated on the principle of **Fuhrerprinzip** - leadership principle - **strict hierarchical order**
- **every area of life had someone in charge** - essential to work together - **initiative was frowned upon**
- Hitler as the Führer had **ultimate power**
83
Nazi gov feature: decision-making
- those that were **loyal to Hitler + produced results** = given **more power + responsibility**
- trusted individuals like Goebbels in the **Ministry of Propaganda** became powerful
- kept the **cabinet of ministers** from the **previous gov** BUT **abolished cabinet meetings**
- **minsters worked individuals** + sent draft laws and policies to each other by paper
84
Administration
- largely controlled by the **civil service** -under the new **Minister Wilhelm Frick** in the **Ministry of Interior**
- operated within Nazi ideology of **Fuhrerprinzip**
- Frick’s civil service often conflicted with other **Reich Special agencies** - despite **policy clarifications** that the Nazi Party would **only intervene where there were gaps in the civil service provision**
- civil service decisions often overruled
85
Nazi gov features: One Nation
- Nazis were against division of German into **Lander** - wanted a **centralised state**
- *31 March 1933* - regional parliaments **landage** were **dissolved + reformed** with **Nazi majority**
- *30 January 1934* - **Law for the Reconstruction of the Reich** officially terminated the Landers
- the law stated that the unity of the German people overrode regional differences
- civil structure was supposed to be reorganised with **Frick** running ***regional + local gov** - often conflicted with the **Gauleiters** - in charge of regional party organisation
86
Nazi gov features: Control
- **Gestapo** set up by **Goering** on *26 April 1933*
- Gestapo taken over by Himmler’s SS in *1936* - although the SS + Gestapo still ran as separate
- Gestapo + SS developed their own **judiciary systems** for **political offences**
- Gestapo-controlled **concentration camps** for **political prisoners** - could be held indefinitely without trial
- court decisions could be overruled by the Gestapo
