Opposition, Control, And Consent Flashcards
1
Q
Impact of the Treaty of Versailles on German politics
A
- influenced the political agenda + used as a campaigning point
- cause of political disent
- Weimar gov. seen as traitors to the country - stab in the back theory
- public influenced by nationalistic propaganda
- existence of reparation made Germans angry
2
Q
Violent upheaval due to war
A
- Germany after the war was full of men that had been trained due to war
- many unemployed soldiers
- some formed private armies for political groups
3
Q
The government was opposed by both sides due to:
A
- involvement in the Treaty of Versailles
- liberalism + democratic principles
- failure to produce a strong + decisive government
- lack of strong leader
- failure to unite Germany
4
Q
Left wing opposition
A
- 4 November 1919 the gov dismissed the popular police chief in Berlin Emil Eichorn - radical USPD member
- led to Spartacist Revolt on 6 November 1919
- Spartacist Revolt- thousands of armed workers took over key buildings (similar to Russian Revolution)
- Chancellor Ebert moved the government to the town of Weimar for safety
- left wing tactics included attempts to take over individual German states + establish communist gov.
- Bavaria 1919
- Saxony + Thuringia 1921
- Freikorps usually used to crush communists
5
Q
DNVP
A
- opposed the Weimar government at first
- acted as an opposition party in the Reichstag
- later tried to work within the Reichstag to create a more stable political environment
6
Q
Extreme right wing opposition
A
- aimed to restore empire + overturn the Treaty
- came from wealthy landowners + army + industrialists + some uni / school teachers
- Weimar gov. didn’t try hard enough to convince the teaching profession about the benefits of the new system
- hard to convince public of the good of democracy as the parties were unable to work together in the Reichstag
7
Q
Who were the leaders of the Kapp Putsch
A
- Wolfgang Kapp
- Walther Lüttwitz (Freikorps leader)
- Herman Ehrhardt (Freikorps leader)
8
Q
Kapp Putch
A
- had the support of Eric Ludendorff ( WW1 general)
- took over Berlin on 12 March 1920 - the gov. fled
- most of the army didn’t join but also refused to fight the rebels
- the leaders proclaimed themselves the new gov. + dissolved the National Assembly + said the Weimar constitution was no longer in force
9
Q
How did the Kapp Putsch end
A
- the trade unions called a general strike
- they demanded an end to the Putsch + new gov. with the SPD in charge
- the general strike was almost universal
- 4 days later after the strike started - the Kapp government fell
- the Weimar gov. returned to Berlin thanks to the strike rather than due to the army
- Wolfgang Kapp died in prison awaiting trial
- other two leaders were given short prison sentences
10
Q
Who led the Munich Putsch
A
- **Adolf Hitler* led the Munich Putsch
- he modelled it after Mussolini’s March on Rome in 1922
- he hoped to gain support from local politicians and citizens
11
Q
Events of the Munich Putsch
A
- November 8 1923 the SA surrounded a large beer cellar in Munich where Gustav Von Kuhr + Otto Von Lossow + others were in a meeting
- Hitler crashed into the hall and announced that the gov. Of Bavaria + national gov had fallen
- Gustav + Otto forced to state approval for Hitler’s plan + Ludendorff as Commander-in-chief
- Gustav + Otto allowed to leave the beer hall at which point they denounce what they had agreed to
- November 9th 2k armed Nazis march to a military base in Munich
- Nazis taken prisoner after a small battle with the police
12
Q
End of the Munich Putsch + Hitler’s trial
A
- Hitler escapes but is arrested when found
- February 1924 he uses his trial as a chance to give a speech about his views + critique Weimar gov
- judges are sympathetic + Hitler given 5 year sentence but only serves 9 months
- uses the time to write his book Mein Kampf + plan his political plan
13
Q
Why the Weimar gov struggled to control extremist groups
A
- the gov came into power through revolution but not enough support for countrywide revolution
- theoretical democracy
- left wing though the gov wasn’t radical enough
- right wing wanted the old nationalistic system again
- freedom of speech + assembly meant there was open criticism
14
Q
Why Ebert was willing to make concessions
A
- wanted stability + support
- need to reform army - Reichswehr + other parts of society like education
15
Q
Ebert-Groener Pact
A
- November 10 1918 - pact with the new leader of the army
- army would support the new gov as long as it opposed the more left-wing ideas in the Reichstag
- Groener didn’t know about the Stinnes-Legion Agreement
16
Q
Stinnes-Legien Agreement
A
- November 15 1918
- agreement with the leader of the labour union Carl Legien + industrialist Hugo Stinnes
- support = legislation on work hours + adequate union representation
- they didn’t know about the Ebert-Groener Pact
17
Q
Regional disruption
A
- Weimar gov had varying control in the different regions
- regions having gov struggles as many leaders had abdicated after the Kaiser did - some unwillingly
- all eventually adopted the Weimar Constitution - at different dates
- Thuringia didn’t hold elections until June 1920
- in Bavaria + Saxony the communists tried to set up their own gov
- Weimar gov used the Freikorps + army to restore order using the system of Reichsexekution
18
Q
Reichsexekution
A
- takeover by the federal gov + army
- removal of the state gov as a threat to the public
- replaced by a military gov headed by a civilian governor appointed by the federal gov
- until Weimar constitution + Weimar system of gov could be restored
19
Q
Reichsexekution in Saxony + Thuringia
A
- this is how the gov dealt with the communist govs in Saxony + Thuringia in 1922
- troops marched in and broke up the meetings in each Land
- arrests + imprisonments
- army was heavy-handed with worker groups
- there were riots in which workers were shot
20
Q
Reaction different in left-wing vs right-wing uprising
A
- Weimar gov forced to rely on the army to manage extremist groups
- reaction of the Reichswehr + judiciary was different depending on if the uprising was left-wing or right-wing
- left wing problems dealt with brutally by the Reichswehr
- army sometimes refused to act against right wing uprisings - Kapp Putsch
- judiciary quite harsh on left-wing vs right-wing convicts - like Hitler
- economic depression after Hindenburg came to power made right-wing increasingly confident that public wanted a strong RW gov - led to increased votes for Nazis
21
Q
Popular support for Weimar Constitution
A
- people welcomed it in lieu of something worse
- 1923 the people of Saxony welcomed the Reichsexekution as a removal of the communist gov that had imposed itself on the region
- American ambassador in Dresden said the troops were cheered on by the public who saw them as liberators
- Weimar Constitution had more supporters than the Weimar gov
22
Q
When the Weimar gov did right - increase in support
A
- 1924 to 1929 the gov was improving the economy + getting Germany accepted as a Power in Europe
- 1924 the SPD - face of the Constitution - won 131 seats in the Reichstag
- 1928 - SPD won 153 seats
- when the Weimar gov did badly - right wing president elected + Nazi rise in power
23
Q
RMVP
A
- Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda
- created March 1933 with Joseph Goebbels as head
- regulated culture + mass media
- Hitler was the focus of propaganda + glorified as heroic and an infallible leader
- created cult of personality for Hitler
24
Q
RKK
A
- Reich Culture Chamber
- founded by Goebbels on September 22nd 1933
- membership mandatory for people producing culture + used censorship
- racially or politically undesirable artists banned
- horst vessel - SA man who was killed - his anthem was a pro-nazi song for the SA
25
Newspapers + Press before 1933
- **daily press was decentralised** with little to no government effect
- ‘newspaper density’ in germany outdid britain and france
- **article 118** essentially stated **criticisms were allowed to be published** by papers - lots of newspapers available, criticism spread quickly
- when hitler took control **less than 3% of the 4700** newspapers available were nazi controlled
- most newspapers **retained original name** after Nazi takeover
26
Changes for journalists
- made to register with the **reich association of the german press** - part of the reich press chamber - in the **reich association** people had to be ‘pure german’ - **volksgenneson**
- **editors law** - **schriftleitergesetz** - put into effect on **January 1st 1934** - forbids non-aryans to work in journalism
- expected to have a **year of professional training** - to stop free-lance journalists
- those who failed to follow instructions were **fired + sent to concentration camps**
- title of journalist was changed to **schriftleiter**
27
Changes to Press
- state allowed to seize printing plants + equipment of outlawed political party’s newspapers
- **clause 14** - everything that would weaken hitlers regime was to be excluded by publishers
- **state controlled press-agency** - produced **half the content** of newspapers + only way **journalists receive information** = limiting publishing further
- aimed to **restrict the interpretations + access to news sources** rather than banning news
28
Nazi ownership of Press
- Nazi Ownership of the press was lucrative and a definite insurance of full Nazi control over the news distributed
- used **holding companies** to disguise new ownership- the Nazi owned publishing house **Franz Eher** created a huge empire + drove out competition
- Franz Eher **purchased newspapers below market prices** - essentially bankrupting companies
- **Independent + non political printed media** allowed through **self censorship** + publishing of approved topics
- *1939* - **69%** of newspapers were nazi - **88%** by 1944
29
Ullstein and Mosse
- examples of Nazi’s ***publishing company take overs**
• **Ullstein** was the **biggest European publishing house company** by *1933*
- German officials forced the Ullstein Family’s resignation + sell their company assets
- The **Ullstein company** published the Berlin daily **Vossiche Zeitung**
• The Mosse family published a large number of liberal newspapers, including the **Berlin Tageblatt** - fled after Hitler took power.
- example of attempt to Aryanize businesses as both **Ullstein and Mosse** were **Jewish** families
30
Pre-Nazi Films
- pre-nazi films - **metropolis + blue angel + asphalt**
- during weimar - film showed **freedom of speech and expression** - women were open minded towards sexuality + drugs + alcohol
31
Nazi film use
- Nazi films not explicitly used for propaganda purposes - mainly for relaxation purposes
- By *1942*- all independent film companies were incorporated into **UFI**
- **reich film chamber** divided the film genres into **different classifications** - film of the nation + valuable for youth + politically and artistically valuable
- films that did not fit such categories, such as **American films banned** - not approved by Goebbels
32
Effectiveness of film propaganda
- portray Nazis as liberators that saved + restored Germany after Weimar and WW1
- produce derogatory films about minorities, mainly with anti semitic themes against Jews
- in the anti semitic films portrayed them as **rats or villains** to communicate this meaning
- German filmmaker **Fritz Hippler** ran **film department in Propaganda Ministry of Nazi Germany** - director of **Der Ewige Jude**
33
Radio before Nazis
- creation of the **Reich Radio Company** (RRG) *1925* -radio state regulated
- **51%** owned by the **Ministry of Posts** + **40%** owned by **nine regional broadcast companies**
- *1933* - RRG taken over by Reich governors
- *April 1934* - Nazis established **unified radio system**
34
Key figures in Radio
- **Joseph Goebbels** was a strong advocate for radio to spread Nazi ideology - **Minister of Propaganda** *1933 - 45**
- first abroad radio broadcasts were performances by some of Germany’s top orchestras and operas singers
- broadcasts covered Western Europe + huge broadcasting station in **Seesen** so broadcasts could be heard around the world
- *1938* - **short-wave broadcasts** transmitted all day in **12 languages**
- **Eugen Hadamovsky** was the **Head of the Chamber of Radio** - ensured German radio followed Nazi policies + removed those against it
35
People’s Receiver
- All households with radio pay 2 marks monthly for broadcasting
- Goebbels arranged for cheap type of radios known as the ‘People’s Receiver’ - **Volksempfänger** - **1933** -**76 marks** - one of the cheapest radios available in Europe
- expansion of larger German radio towers brought broadcasts to countryside
- The radio name **Volksempfänger 301** - VE301 - reference to *30th January* - day Hitler became Chancellor
- By *1939* **70% of German households** owned A VE301
36
Architecture
- locals encouraged to build thatched roof cottages - **Blut und Boden**
- colossal buildings towered over everyone - asserting regime’s dominance - **Pavilion** a **30km complex** around Nuremberg
- the **Zeppenlinfield Grandstand** - designed by **Albert Speer** - used for Party Rallies after *1933*
- **German Pavilion** by Speer - **65m tower** - defeated the Soviet Pavilion in the **world exhibition**
37
The Autobahn - motorway
- Motorway construction began *September 1933* under **Fritz Todt**
- The Volkswagen = “the peoples car”
- Unsuccessful as cars were seen as elitist - Programme ended *1942* due to war
- **3,870 km** motorway made
- Promised **600k jobs** yet only **125k** people employed - bad working conditions
- exaggerated propaganda - to show power of Germany
38
Nuremberg Rallies
- *1933 - 38* Nazi rallies held annually at purpose-built grounds in Nuremberg
- military gatherings involved hundreds of thousands of Nazi’s - **party members + armed forces + youth groups**
- Nazis in **military dress + marches + torchlight processions + speeches**
- **The Cathedral of Light** - AKA **Lichtdom** was a main aethertic feature of the Rallies - **152 anti-aircraft searchlights** aimed skyward to create vertical bars around audience
39
Effectiveness of rallies
- rallies were propaganda to show Germany as **powerful + ordered + under Nazi control**
- **large size created nationalistic feeling** - appealing to Germans who wanted a strong Germany
40
Sculptures
- 1934 – decree that all new public buildings must be embellished by sculptures to reflect Nazi message
- Key sculptors **Arno Breker + Josef Thorak** given large studios to produce statues of men + dominant animals like eagles
41
Effectiveness of Sculptures
- portrayal of Aryan people as **flawless + traditionally attractive** reflected message that **Aryans were the master race**
- clear links to classic Roman sculptures linked **Third Reich empire to Roman Empire** - effective during Olympics - celebration of ancient Greek and Roman sports
- Depiction of **traditionally masculine men + feminine women** strengthened traditional gender roles
- sculptures made it seem Germany was recovering well from **WW1 + Great Depression** compared to Europe
42
Paintings
- *1929* – **Alfred Rosenberg** set up the **Combat League for German Culture Modern** to replace abstract Weimar art
- All working artists had to be members of **Reich Culture Chamber** – the state could withdraw licenses to tech + exhibit + paint by issuing a **Malverbot**
- Gradual radicalization of the Nazi cultural policy began in *1936* with the **Degenerate Art Exhibition** - **Entartete Kunst** - Munich *July 19 1937*
43
Preparations for the Olympics
- overt evidence of hostility hidden in Berlin - **signs banning Jews from public places disappeared**
- Germans ordered to be nice to all - especially **African-Americans**
- A huge sports complex constructed - included **new stadium + state-of-the art Olympic village** for housing athletes
- Olympic flags + swastikas were all over monuments + houses in Berlin
- police roundup of **Roma Gipsies in Berlin** ordered by **German Ministry of the Interior** - *July 16 1936* **800 Roma** in Berlin **arrested + placed in camp** in the Berlin suburbs
- Nazi officials ordered that foreign visitors should not be subjected to the criminal penalties of **German anti-homosexuality laws**
44
Jews in Sport
- *April 1933* German athletic organisations implemented an **Aryan only policy** to discriminate against Jews + Gypsies
- Light heavyweight champion **Erich Seelig** expelled from **German Boxing Association**
- **Daniel Prenn** - Germany’s **top ranked tennis player** removed from **Germany’s Davis Cup team**
- Jewish athletes tried to make their own Jewish sport associations such as **Maccabee + Shield group** - lacked resources + facilities + finances
45
Hitler Youth
- The Hitler Youth combined **sports + outdoor activities + ideology**
- **The League of German Girls** emphasised collective athletics - **rhythmic gymnastics** - German health authorities deemed less strenuous to the female body and better geared to **prepare for motherhood**
- organised **sporting activities** that would develop the fit bodies that **'soldiers' and 'child-bearers' required**
- pblic displays of values encouraged young men + women to abandon individuality in favour of goals of the **Aryan collective**
46
Gestapo
- set up *April 1933* by **Hermann Goering**
- had its own legal system + operated independently of the existing legal system
- could arrest people for anything - **plotting to kill Hitler + telling jokes about Nazis**
- **did not wear uniform** - made people more careful
47
SS
- began as Hitler’s bodyguards - **Blackshirts**
- ran the concentration camps after the **Night of the Long Knives** *1934*
- had to be **racially pure** - trace Aryan ancestry to **200 years ago**
- by *1936*- approx **240k** SS were in charge of the Gestapo - had own **economic branch** to run the camps - **labour + concentration camps**
48
The People’s Court
- set up in **Berlin** in *1934* to try traitors to the Third Reich
- ran by **Judge Roland Freisler**
- held private trials that **always resulted in guilty verdict**
- all judges had to swear **oath of loyalty to Hitler**
49
Block wardens
- **Blockwarts** ran individual apartment blocks + streets - **30 to 40 houses**
- encouraged participation in Nazi events
- reported to the **Party Boss**
- watched out for the smallest of infringements of Nazi rules
- nicknamed **Little Hitlers**
50
Informers
- the Nazis had a **strong local structure** - **Gauleiters in charge of each Gau** - region
- gave denunciations to the **Gestapo**
- **Pranger-Liste** - compilation of German women purchasing goods from Jews - **names + addresses**
- atmosphere of mistrust + secrecy - all encouraged to **speak through a flower** - only speak positive
51
Political concentration camps
- concentration camps for political prisoners
- *1933 - 45* over **500k** non-Jews sent to these camps for political crimes
- **Oranienburg** in **Prussia** was the first political concentration camp - opened *1933*
52
Denunciations + reality of Gestapo
- *1933 - 45* largest amount of denunciations **57%** from the general population
- reasons - **genuine belief + fear + personal grievances**
- fear of Gestapo - illusion of total control
- only **28 Gestapo officials** covering a **million people** living in **Wurzburg + Lower Franconia**
53
Anti-Semitic propaganda
- presented Jews as **subhuman + greedy**
- after *1939* Nazis crowded Jews into **ghettos** where food + water + electricity was scarce
- images of ghettos used to reinforce anti-Semitic propaganda
54
Support from those who benefit
- **wealthy industrialists** - benefit from **trade union ban**
- those who applied to **Germanise an area** - given **homes + farmland** - taken from minorities
- general public - believed Nazis were reversing Treaty of Versailles losses
55
Strength Through Joy - KDF
- set up as part of **DAF - German Labour Front** - only trade union allowed
- KDF organised **activities for after-work + weekend + holidays** for workers + their families
- activities were free or lower rate - **subsidised by gov.** - **23 million marks** in *1933*
- present image of a gov that cared for its workers - more than other countries
56
Rewarding Conformity
- mothers given **medals** for more than **4 kids**
- **1k marks** marriage loan reduced by **250 marks** per child
- regular check ups + vitamins provided during pregnancy
- workers rewarded with free trips with KDF programme
57
Führer Myth
- Nazis presented Hitler as a **national hero + god-like figure** who could do no wrong
- made people willing to sacrifice when asked
- reason for **support during war** - people **collect for charities + join murder squads**
58
Anti-Nazi Campaigns
- *1933** SPD group **Red Shock Troop** published a newspaper every **ten days** + built membership of **3k**
- arrested in *December* + sent to concentration camps
- by *1938* most groups stopped publications - Gestapo would trace back to groups
- SPD outside of country **SOPADE** gathered info + passed to Allies
- **The Red Orchestra** passed info about German war effort to **USSR*
59
sabotage
- **lightning strikes** - lasted a few hours - *1936* **autobahn workers** held one
- sabotaged production by **working slowly + damaging machinery + reporting sick**
- need for workers meant sabotage ignored mostly - only arrested if groups were too organised
- *1944* **Anti-Fascist Workers' Group** arrested
- once at war - some worked with Allies to **blow up bridges + railway lines**
60
July Plot 1944
- **Operation Valkyrie** organised by **Wehrmacht officers**
- bomb in briefcase planted by **Lieutenant Stauffenberg**
- approx **200 people** exuted for the plot
61
Church Opposition
- Hitler developed Nazi-influenced **People's Church** - large PROTESTANT church
- by *1933* the People's Church was more Nazi than Christian
- formation of **Pastor's Emergency League** *1934* developed into the **Confessing Church** to condemn People's Church
- many members arrested + executed
62
SDP as face of opposition
- *1950s* - not part of gov as CDU leading with **Adenauer**
- argued against **Year 0**
- against Adenauer’s desire to **align FRG with Europe** - would make reunification with East Germany less likely
63
Demonstrations in the 1950s
- gov used clause in **Basic Law** that political parties could exist only if they didn’t threaten constitution or principles of democracy
- banned **Socialist Reich party** in *1952* - similar values to Nazis
- KPD won very little seats in Bundestag - **organised communist demonstrations**
- *1953* **Munich** approx **6k** communists marched - clashed with police
64
Youth protests against?
- idea of **year 0** - adopted slogan **what did you do in the war daddy?** as a mockery of the British slogan
- protests against **FRG military** - involvement with NATO + nuclear weapons
- discontent with **USA in Vietnam War**
65
APO
- **Extra-Parliamentary Opposition** - distrust in conservative gov + no strong left-wing parties after KPD banned
- SPD revised polices in *1959* to be less radical = more power in gov BUT lack of left-wing support
- APO had strong **university membership** - support opposition to gov + student protest
66
SDS
- **German Socialist Student Union** broke away from SPD in *1961* as SDS was more radical
- protests against **Vietnam War + nuclear weapons + involvement in NATO**
- protest against **former Nazis in government** - called them the **Auschwitz generation**
- **Rudi Dutschke** was SDS leader from *1965* + student shot in *1967* demonstrations
- SDS demonstrated against new **Emergency Law** in *May 1968* - passed anyways - **allowed gov powers of arrest + surveillance**
67
Easter Riots
- *1968 April* - Rudi Dutschke **shot by right-wing fanatic** after reading a conservative newspaper by **Springer Press**
- Easter riots ensued - series of attacks on Springer press offices all over Germany
68
Effect of 1968 Emergency Law + Terrorism
- emergency law + police control **reduced amount of protests**
- made certain groups **more marginalised** - increased violence as they **resorted to terrorism**
- police would put up **wanted posters of terrorists** BUT terrorist groups were fluid - form + break up + move one + re-form
- some terrorist arrests = more violence - **regular gun battles with police** - several times a month
69
Baader-Meinhof Gang
- set up in *1970* - called itself the **Red Army Faction** - RAF
- trained with **Palestinian Terrorist group** - PLO - in Jordan
- published **The Concept of the Urban Guerrilla** in *1971*
- RAF hunger striker died in prison = bombing of judges + lawyers form the trial
- almost all members arrested by *1975* - terrorist activity slowed afterwards
