poli sci FINAL!!!!!!11

Question 1

Rapprochement: definition + significance

Answer 1

establishment or renewal of friendly relations between countries previously in conflict.
Significance: reflects shifts in international relations, such as the normalization of US-China relations in the 1970s, signaling changes in strategic priorities.

Question 2

definition + significance - BRICS

Answer 2

association of five major emerging economies: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
Significance: challenge the Western-dominated Liberal International Order (LIO) by creating alternative multilateral institutions, like the New Development Bank, and by offering different ideological and economic frameworks. They signify the rise of multipolarity and shifting balance of global power.

Question 3

definition + significance - UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide:

Answer 3

1948 treaty adopted by the United Nations to define and criminalize genocide and establish preventative and punishment mechanisms.
Significance: foundational document in international law in addressing genocide. Although the convention is a landmark case in setting norms, enforcement remains challenging due to the reluctance of states to intervene and lack of enforcement mechanisms.

Question 4

definition + significance - Arusha Accords

Answer 4

1993 peace agreement between the Rwandan government and the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) aimed at ending the Rwandan Civil War.
Significance: its failure contributed to the outbreak of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. It highlights the challenges of post-conflict governance and the importance of international enforcement mechanisms.

Question 5

definition + significance - Rio Earth Summit

Answer 5

1992 major UN conference focused on sustainable development and environmental protection.
Significance: established key frameworks like the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the concept of “sustainable development.” It marked a turning point in global environmental governance and laid the groundwork for future climate agreements like the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Accords. Also marked the first major success of NGOs.

Question 6

definition + significance - Collective Action Problem

Answer 6

cooperation among states to achieve shared goals (collective goods) like climate change or security threats.
Significance: collective action problems, such as free riding, often undermine efforts to address global issues like environmental protection or humanitarian crises.

Question 7

definition + significance - 1987 Montreal Protocol

Answer 7

treaty to phase out substances that deplete the ozone layer, such as CFCs.
Significance: one of the most successful environmental treaties demonstrating effective global cooperation and compliance mechanisms.
2015 Paris Climate Accords: international agreement under the UNFCCC to limit global

Question 8

definition + significance -UN

Answer 8

intergovernmental organization founded in 1945 aiming to promote peace, cooperation, and security.
Significance: the UN serves as the key platform for global governance, addressing issues such as conflict resolution, human rights, and climate change. Its specialized agencies (e.g. WHO) and bodies (e.g. Security Council) enables multilateral action.

Question 9

definition + significance -NGO

Answer 9

independent, non-profit organizations that work to address environmental, social, or political issues without direct government control or affiliation.
Significance: play a crucial role in global governance by advocating for policy change, providing humanitarian aid, and holding governments accountable. They often collaborate with IGOs like the UN to tackle transnational challenges like climate change and human rights abuses.

Question 10

definition + significance -TANs -Transnational Activist Networks

Answer 10

network of activists, including NGOs and individuals, who collaborate across borders for issues like environmental justice, climate change, and human rights.
Significance: shape international norms and influence state behavior. Highlights the growing role of non-state actors in global governance.

Question 11

definition + significance -Thucydides Trap

Answer 11

a rising power will end up in war when it threatens to displace an existing dominant power.
Significance: used to analyze contemporary US-China relations in which China’s rise threatens US hegemony. The “trap” warns of potential conflict.

Question 12

definition + significance –International Law

Answer 12

ICC & ICJ. Insights: 3 opposing views. Critical (doubts intl law’s impact on politics, especially as states tend to only sign treaties which they support) (ex.: Non-Proliferation Treaty), contractual (intl laws result from mutually beneficial cooperation and can help solve commitment, screening, collaboration, and coordination problems) (ex.: ceasefire agreements), and sociological (state preferences are malleable and laws can work to change preferences by influencing domestic power dynamics) (ex.: human trafficking reform).

Question 12

definition + significance -Hard vs. Soft Law:

Answer 12

hard law is legally binding, highly-specific, enforceable, with low flexibility. Soft law is non-binding, open to interpretation, relies on persuasion and norms, with high flexibility. The balance between the two reflects a greater tension between global governance and state sovereignty. Soft power leads to cooperation but lacks enforcement power, while hard law leads to structure but may lead to political contention.
See Jones reading.

Question 13

definition + significance -Sovereignty vs. Interdependence

Answer 13

clash in global governance debates. Some see global governance as weakening the state and making it more interdependent, while others remain that there is a strong state as NGOs and IOs hold little real power. In reality, it is probably a more nuanced combination of the two where the state remains strong yet still works with NGOs and IOs. States resist international law which undermines their sovereignty.

Question 14

definition + significance -Compliance and Enforcement

Answer 14

international law is a key mechanism in global governance. There are debates from critics which claim that countries only uphold treaties which they previously supported, negating their true influence. International law can be difficult to enforce. The ICJ has no enforcement mechanism (yet still sometimes works), while the ICC relies on cooperation from a number of states to arrest and detain individuals.

Question 15

definition + significance -Collective Action.

Answer 15

The benefits of a solution are shared, but the costs aren’t evenly distributed. However, if only a few take action it is ineffective (free riding). Largely focuses on collective goods problems; goods available to all individuals and of which all can benefit. This leads to a phenomenon in which everyone tries to contribute the bare minimum to see gains. Sometimes works, such as in the 1987 Montreal Protocol.

Question 16

definition + significance -Role of States and Non-State Actors

Answer 16

Non-State actors saw a turning point in their influence with the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. Nonstate actors, such as the UN, continue to push for cooperation on climate change. For example, the UN’s 2015 Paris Agreement. However, states involved in these agreements dispute who should bear the cost. (1997 Kyoto Protocol).

Question 17

definition + significance -Paris Agreement:

Answer 17

2015 landmark climate agreement which aimed to reduce emissions and combat climate change. The US has been in and out of the agreement since its ratification as the presidency changes hands. It was a binding agreement where states set their own goals. Emphasized soft law agreements.

Question 17

definition + significance -International Responses to Environmental Crises like Climate Change.

Answer 17

There are several controversies between states in response to environmental crises like climate change. The US/EU want less developed countries to bear the cost as they will contribute most to warming in the future. However, they are met with pushback from these countries who claim the US/EU made the problem (although we didn’t know it) and that we can afford it (disincentivizing effect). There is also the market-down approach from the Clean Development Mechanism (Kyoto) where big countries can support developing countries going green through financial incentives. However, there is uneven bargaining power and a lack of a moral stigma.

Question 18

definition + significance -Collective Goods

Answer 18

Collective goods are goods which are available to everybody. The environmental versions of this could include the ocean, air, etc..

Question 19

definition + significance -Tragedy of the Commons

Answer 19

When there is a collective good, individuals (or state actors) tend to contribute as little as possible to enjoy benefits. This can also lead to free riding, where an actor does not contribute at all but still enjoys the benefits of a collective good. Self-interest leads to overexploitation of shared resources.

Question 20

definition + significance -Green Energy Transition:

Answer 20

the transition to green energy from fossil fuels. Ambition and source of green energy differs from state to state based on their geopolitics.

Question 21

definition + significance -Realist Environmental Solutions

Answer 21

realists claim that the reason we haven’t done anything about climate change is because states have no incentive to take a risk which might leave them disadvantaged down the line (cooperation is unlikely and uncertain). The solution which Walt proposes is to pose climate change as a threat to the state’s security in order to elicit a response.
See Walt Reading.

Question 22

definition + significance -Geopolitics of Energy:

Answer 22

immense geopolitical power has been given to state actors who have abundant oil. Ever since the Royal Navy switched to oil from coal at the beginning of the 20th century, oil politics has changed the global political economy entirely permanently. The Middle East has especially gained geopolitical influence because of their oil supply.

Question 23

definition + significance - Theories on Humanitarian Intervention:

Answer 23

hard for neorealism and neoliberalism to explain humanitarian intervention when there is no material interest at stake. Therefore, we must look at the changing of ideas and norms (constructivism) to explain why an intervention occurred.

Question 24

definition + significance - R2P

Answer 24

Responsibility to protect. Stemmed out of the need for a legal justification for intervention and to “solve” the question of who will intervene in a humanitarian crisis. If a country can’t/won’t protect their citizens as is their duty, then the responsibility falls to the international community. This raises the question of who the international community is. Many states are unwilling to provide troops to intervene, even if willing to provide aid.

Question 25

definition + significance -Peacekeeping

Answer 25

peacekeeping interventions were only invoked through Ch VII twice during the Cold War. They have been largely successful, with 11/16 missions succeeded since the Cold War. Still, because of failures like that in Libya and Somalia, they are usually unpopular and controversial. China has had a growing role and has been the largest contributor of troops among the Security Council since the US has reduced support. Examples include UN operations in Sierra Leone, especially through UNAMSIL’s ability to restore government authority and assist in the voluntary return of more than half a million refugees.
See Walter et al for success factors.

Question 26

definition + significance -New Civil Wars

Answer 26

most recent wave of civil wars since 2003. Enabled by information technology and web 2.0. These wars have been fought for transnational goals by radical Islamist groups in Muslim-majority countries. Funding from international sources has been enabled through the internet, alongside global recruitment and influence.
See Walter reading.

Question 27

definition + significance -Case Studies:

Answer 27

Libya, Rwanda (next module), Kosovo. Libya (2011) is a failed example where peacekeeping missions changed their goals from protecting citizens to regime change; since, the situation has worsened for human rights. Rwanda (1994) is a failed example where a lack of peacekeeping troops and general lack of international awareness and support led to hundreds of thousands of deaths in a period of 100 days. Kosovo (1999) saw the controversial intervention of NATO in Yugoslavia without a UN mandate, yet it was still successful at stopping the killings. Sierra-Leone

Question 28

definition + significance -Failure of International Intervention:

Answer 28

international intervention failed in Rwanda. The lack of attention from the media and avoidance of the use of the term “genocide” warranted no public push for peacekeeping operations. Troops were not authorized to disarm combatants and could only shelter Tutsi which came to them directly, making them essentially useless in the broader genocide. After 10 Belgian troops were killed, all troops were pulled from the region.
See Powers reading.

Question 29

definition + significance -Structural and Immidiate Causes of Genocide

Answer 29

the term genocide was created in 1944 after WWII as a sub-category of mass killings. It was defined in the 1948 Genocide Convention. Genocides are the attempt to essentially erase a group’s foundation of life as a whole or part. It can happen in peacetime or in war. There has been a shift to focus on the intent behind genocide (which can be controversial, as in no means should causes warrant the ultimate crime against humanity). At the individual level of analysis, you could look at who is involved. At the domestic level, you might look at the country’s structure (democracy or not?). At the international level, you might look at the strength of norms at that time. Genocide isn’t always a state actor, and so neorealists and neoliberals have a hard time explaining it. They might look at national interests for intervention or how easy it is to coordinate under the Balance of Power. Constructivists might look at the norms and why states intervene. For the Rwandan Genocide, interethnic conflict stemming from colonization was the root cause. The genocide started immediately after a plane was shot down carrying the presidents of Rwanda and Burundi.

Question 30

definition + significance -Bystander Behavior:

Answer 30

The United States did not want to intervene in Rwanda because of the shadow of Somalia. It was not in the national interest and there was no public call for action because the media avoided both covering it and use of the term “genocide.” After the fact it was acknowledged as a grave error. The term ethnic cleansing was used interchangeably; and although morally apprehensible, ethnic cleansing is not legally binding as is genocide.

Question 31

definition + significance -Interahamwe

Answer 31

extremist militia group formed by Habyarinama which carried out most of the killings in the genocide.

Question 32

definition + significance -Shifts in Global Power Structure:

Answer 32

Before 9/11 and after the Cold War, the United States enjoyed unilateral power. The astonishing gap between its power and others’ was unrivaled. After 9/11, power began to shift back to multilateralism (although with the United States still being on top of the pecking order by far). The United States is still the most powerful country in the world today because of its hard and soft power combined, however it is facing threats from the growing list of BRICS countries. China, its biggest rival, had a stunning rise in power since the millennium. Its economic production threatens not only the United States, but the bigger liberal international order. Many critics claim that the US does not have to worry about this security-wise, though, as China does not threaten it directly but rather will bring about profound economic shifts. Although, there are many points of contention between the US and China, especially as President Trump has made it clear that we see the PRC as a rival. Shared power between China and the US/West is what we are headed towards now. According the Thucydides Trap, these shifting power dynamics will lead to conflict.

Question 33

definition + significance -UNAMIR:

Answer 33

united Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda. It was under resourced and constrained, deployed before and during the genocide. Troops were pulled quickly in the conflict. UNAMIR was a failure.

Question 34

definition + significance -Liberal International Order

Answer 34

The West has been the powercenter of the world throughout modern history. For the first time, BRICS threatens this order as countries from around the world (East Asia, Africa, Middle East, etc.) arise as major geopolitical contenders. BRICS members also threaten the western binary perspective of democracy vs. non-democracy which had been especially prevalent in the 20th c..

Question 35

definition + significance –American Exceptionalism

Answer 35

the belief that the US is unique and/or exemplary when compared to other nations. Contributed significantly to early 2000s foreign policy and the jaded assumption that our influence abroad would be welcome.

Question 36

definition + significance –Global Power Shifts/Multipolarity:

Answer 36

the world is shifting from unipolarity to multipolarity. Power measurement will be more complicated, direct military confrontation will be less attractive, and diplomatic and coalition-building skills are increasingly important.

Question 37

definition + significance -Liberal International Order (LIO):

Answer 37

Western system characterized by free markets, democratic governance, and multilateral institutions.

Question 37

definition + significance -Balancing vs. Bandwagoning

Answer 37

how states respond to rising powers, either by countering or aligning with them. Trump made it clear that we are balancing China.

Question 38

definition + significance -terrorism

Answer 38

no singular definition. Generally agreed upon that it is fought by non-state actors for political goals that targets non-combatants. Terrorists are different from criminals in that they do not fight for personal gain but rather political gain and sway on public opinion. They are different from guerillas and insurgents in that they do not operate as a military unit and do not hold territory. They deliberately violate the laws of war and aim to create a greater psychological campaign.