POLI 244 final Flashcards
1
Q
how did the world become dominated by sovereign states?
A
- war waging advantage
- law enforcement
- smaller states group together
2
Q
what are the levels of analysis in IR
the three images of IR
A
third image: the international level, representatives of states with different interests interact with one another, sometimes through international institutions
second image: state or transnational level, groups whose members span borders – such as multinational corporations, transnational advocacy networks, terrorist organizations – pursue their interests by trying to influence both domestic and international politics.
first image: domestic level, subnational actors with different interests – politicians, bureaucrats, business
and labour groups, voters – interact within domestic institutions to determine the country’s foreign policy choices
3
Q
overview of realism
A
- assumes that the state is the dominant actor and world politics is characterised by anarchy
- states are rational, seeking to maximise security and power (power=security)
- state’s interests generally conflict
internally they want to build up their military as this = strength
externally they may form limited cooperaiton alliances and go to war
4
Q
how does realism view interactions
A
international politics is mostly about bargaining and coercion always remains a possibility
5
Q
how does realism view institutions
A
- the international system is anarchic and institutions exert little independent effect
- international institutions reflect the interests of powerful states
6
Q
overview of liberalism
A
- many types of different actors are important and no single interest dominates
- wealth is a common goal for many actors
- actors often have common interests which serves as the basis for cooperation
7
Q
how does liberalism view interactions between states?
A
- cooperation is possible and likely
- conflict is not only inevitable but occurs when actors fail to recognise or act on common interests
8
Q
how does liberalism view institutions
A
- they facilitate cooperation by setting out rules, providing information and creating procedures for collective decision making
- deomocratic political institutions make international politics more likely to reflect the common interest of individuals
9
Q
overview of constructivism
A
- many different types of actors are important
- actors interests are influenced by culture, identity and prevailing ideas
- their choices often reflect norms of appropiate behaviour rather than interests
one prominent strand of constructivist though emphasises the role of norms
- because ideas of appropiate behaviour change they see significant potential for change in world politics
10
Q
how does constructivism view interactions
A
- interactions socialise actors to hold particular interests but transformations can occur caused by alternative understandings of those interests
11
Q
how does constructivism view institutions
A
international institutions define identities and shape actions through norms of appropiate behaviour
12
Q
what is neorealism (structural realism)
A
- constant anarchy makes war possible
- power is the measure of a state’s survivability
- international politics can be explained through polarity (materialism)
- leads to security dilemma
in contrast to classical realisms focus on human nature, neorealism highlights anarchy and the relative distribution of power among states as structural causes for a competition on security
13
Q
what are the two opposing views on how the structure of the international system is made up
A
neorealism: material capabilities
constructivism: social relations
14
Q
what is power?
A
the capabilities or power resources at one’s disposal that can be used to influence outcomes
15
Q
what is hard power and how is it pursued
A
getting others to do what you want regardless of what they want
- military power including defense, deterrence, compellence or increasing prestige
- economic power
16
Q
what is soft power
A
getting others to want the outcomes that you want
power over preference
17
Q
what are the four ways of management of international security?
A
- balance of power systems
- concerts
- collective security
- security communities
18
Q
how does balance of power manage international security?
A
- aims to stop any single state from dominating the international system
- functions through shifting alliances and countering the rise of a hegemon
- e.g. 19th century europe where britain, france and russia aligned to check potential dominance
19
Q
how do concerts manage international security
A
- where major powers cooperate to maintain order without formal institutions
- they rely on consensus among great powers to address crises and manage disputes
- fosters a sense of collective responsibility to prioritise diplomacy and negotiation over conflict
- e.g. the concert of europe, early to mid 19th century that satbilised europe post-napoleonic wars
20
Q
how do security communities manage international security?
A
- groups of states that share norms, values and institutions so would not consider war
- integration, trust and cooperation are emphasised over competition
- e.g. NATO or the EU where states resolve disputes without fear of military escalation
21
Q
what is rational choice theory?
A
- international politics is the outcome of individual goal-seeking decisions
- who are the relevant actors, what goals do they pursue, how constrained is their ability to do so
- the goal is irrelevant, this is not the rational aspect of the theory, the action is only rational in light of a given goal
22
Q
how does rational choice theory work?
A
- consider all possible strategies
- predict expected outcomes of all courses of action (rank-order outcomes)
- select the best strategy based on an actors’ interest in outcome
23
Q
what are the 3 most general interests of a state
A
- power/security
- economic/material
- ideological
24
Q
what are the two ways in which states interact?
A
cooperation and bargaining
25
what is cooperation
when actors adopt policies that make at least one actor better off relative to the status quo without making the others worse off
## Footnote
either performed through coordination or collaboration
26
what is bargaining?
an interaction when two or more actors must choose outcomes that makes one better off at the expense of the other
zero sum gain, the gains for one side perfectly match the losses of the other
27
what is coordination
- a type of cooperation
- when actors benefit from all making the same choices and so have no incentive not to comply
28
what is collaboration
- a type of cooperation
- when actors gain from working together but still have incentives not to comply
- best illustrated through the prisoner's dilemma, both are motivated to reduce their own sentence so end up lengthening both of theirs
29
what are factors that affect cooperation?
- iteration: actors more likely to cooperate when they have already done so with a partner
- linkage: linking cooperation on one to issue to interactions on a second issue
- the availability of information
30
what is power
the ability of one actor to get another actor to do something they would otherwise not
the ability to get them to make concessions and avoid having to make concessions oneself
## Footnote
- power derives from the ability to make the reversion outcome better for yourself and worse for the other side (the status quo...?)
31
what is reversion outcome
what would happen in the event that no bargain was reached, typically the same as the status quo
32
in shifting the reversion outcome, what are the 3 ways actors can exercise power?
1. coercion: imposing threat to induce a change in behaviour
2. outside options: alternatives to bargaining with a specific actor
3. agenda setting: actions taken before or during bargaining that make the reversion outcome more favourable for one
33
how do institutions affect cooperation?
- enforcement of imposing punishment on actors who fail to cooperate
- they typically can't punish states bcs anarchy
- but they can help to facilitate cooperation
- they are typically created by past winners and so further help them
34
what are five issues with rational choice theory
1. did the actor behave rationally or as if it were rational
2. we cannot process all relevant information about all possible courses of action
3. cognitive issues, choosing evidence that aligns with existing belief
4. security dilemma and assuming hostile intentions
5. actors are not netural about risk
35
what is neoliberalism
- reaction to neorealism
- questions why we see so much cooperation between states if all they're focused on is power
- increasing ability to overcome cooperation problems
- both absolute and relative gains matter
36
according to the three branches of thought, why does inter-state cooperation fail sometimes even when it makes sense
offensive realists = inevitability of conflict
defensive realists = the limited feasability of cooperation
neoliberal institutionalists = international institutions
37
for constructivists, what are brute facts versus social facts
brute facts = do not depend on anything for existence
social facts = only exist in virtue of collectively shared knowledge
38
for constructivists, what are regulative versus constitutive rules?
regulative = if you break them you are still participating (e.g. if you break the rules of war you are still fighting)
constitutive = breaking them means not to participate (e.g. if you break the rules of the UN you are no longer in it)
39
what are the two conflicting views on how the structure of the international system is made up
neorealism = material capabilities
constructivism = social relations
40
how does constructivism critique realism?
- not all state behaviour is rational, state's don't always act out of expected outcome
- competitive interest could be replaced by collective interest where one state actually cares about the welfare of another
- there is no such thing as 'state nature'
- security dilemma is avoidable
41
what paradigm do bargaining models belong to?
realism
## Footnote
shares the realist presumption that anarchy leads to a world in which military force is threatened
conflicts are addressed through bargaining rather than institutions like courts
42
what is the bargaining range?
the set of deals that both parties in a bargaining interaction prefer over the reversion outcome
when the reversion outcome is war then the bargaining range is the set of deals that both sides prefer over war
43
what is the difference between compellence and deterrence in coercive bargaining
compellence = an effort to change the status quo through threat of force
deterrence = an effort to preserve the status quo through threat of force
44
how do wars sometimes happen by mistake?
through incomplete information, may yield too little or demand too much
45
what are the three ways a state might attempt to coerce in bargaining?
1. brinkmanship: adversaries take action tha increases the risk of accidental war with the hope that the other will lose its nerve first
2. tying hands: making threats that would make it difficult for them to back down
3. paying for power: taking costly steps to increase capabilities e.g. the military to show resolve
46
how can war be made less likely
raise the costs of war: through nuclear weapons and international trade
increase transparency: through satellite monitoring and international organisations
outside enforcement: UN peacekeepers, great power security
47
what is Gilpin's theory or systemic change/hegemonic war?
- the idea that the uneven growth of power among states is the driving force of international relations
- stable states are where change does not threaten the dominant state/s and vice versa
- when broad changes do cause war this is hegemonic war
48
what are some weaknesses of hegemonic war theory?
- can't predict who will initiate the war
- can't say when it will happen
- can't be falsified (Popper)
49
what are core assumptions about liberal theory?
## Footnote
(different to neoliberal institutionalists)
- IR should begin with actors that have an impact on national interests, not with the state
- national interests are the result of domestic politics
- the state is not an actor but a representative institution subject to control by different social actors
50
what is second image reversed and two-level games?
## Footnote
link to the three levels analysis in IR
the second image is when domestic causes create international effects
the second image reversed: when international causes create domestic effects
two level games: when they both impact each other
## Footnote
an aspect of new liberalism
51
what is democratic peace theory?
## Footnote
not the logic behind it just what it is
there are few, if any, clear cases of war between mature democratic states
52
what are the two models to explain why democracies are less likely to go to war with each other?
**the cultural/normative model:**
- democracies apply the same norms of conflict resolution abroad as they do domestically and expect other democratic states to do the same
- this emphasises the rights of others and non-violence
- the same logic vice versa then goes for war between democracies and non-democracies or between two non-democracies
**the structural/institutional model:**
- there are institutional constraints on democracies that slow large scale violence e.g. checks and balances, public debate and division of power
- this also leads to greater transparency and will not fear surprise attacks from other democracies
- then vice versa
53
what is bandwagoning?
a strategy in which states join forces with the stronger side in a conflict
## Footnote
often offensive, desire to cooperate for common gain
54
what does the success/failure of an alliance depend on?
1. the strength of the interests that brought the allies together
2. the ability of the alliance to alter its members preferences so that in the event of a war fighting is preferable to abandonment
3. the effectiveness of the alliance in convincing the adversary of this fact
4. the ability of the partners to limit risk of entrapment
55
what is the difference between balance of power and balance of power theory?
balance of power = describes a situation in which power is distributed equally
balance of power theory = explains a systemic tendency towar equilibrium
56
what is the difference between hard and soft balancing?
hard balancing = military buildups and alliances, more rare
soft balancing = limited, attritional balancing
57
why is bandwagoning less common than balancing?
uncertainty of intensions when bandwagoning
the cost of a perception error is high
58
what is a collective security organisation
broad-based institutions that promote peace and security among their members e.g. UN
## Footnote
- unlike alliances their primary purpose isn't to alter the bargaining outcomes in favour of one state but to ensure that changes to the status quo happen peacefully
- they forbid the use of military force against one another
59
how does collective security work?
- the mechanism is triggered when one state attacks another
- if it is determined as a 'threat to international peace and security' by the UN then all members of the organisation are called to act against the offending state
- this can be done through economic sanctions or even full scale military interventions
fundamentally when an aggressive state is met with a collective response
60
what are two dilemmas of collective security?
1. collective action problems: they do not have the power to tax or raise militaries independently, rely on members
2. joint decision making: members need to determine which acts constitute a threat to the community, difficulty agreeing
61
who are the p5 of the UN security council
US
GB
France
Russia
China
62
under what systems is international stability without cooperation achieved (unintended stability)
- hegemonic systems
- balance of power systems
63
under what systems is international stability with cooperation achieved (stability as intended outcome of deliberate policies)
- concert systems (e.g. concert of europe)
- collective security systems (post-1945 US-led liberal international order)
64
why do realists reject collective security systems?
- its geared towards an abstract threat that limits effectively facing the actual aggressor
- makes the world more unstable as it discourages the formation of balance of power to prevent unipolarity
65
what is international law
a body of rules that binds states and other agents in world politics and is considered to have the status of law
## Footnote
different from norms
66
how is international law made?
customary international law - laws that develops slowly over time as states recognise practices as appropiate and correct
international treaties - negotiated and ratified by states
67
how does international law vary?
- obligation: degree to which states are legally bound by an international rule. high obligation include geneva convention of crimes against humanity
- precision: the degree to which legal obligations are fully specified, more precise rules narrow the scope for reasonable interpretation
- delegation: the degree to which third parties are given authority to implement
## Footnote
this creates the difference between hard (obligatory, delegates substantial authority to third parties particularly internatonal courts) and soft law (ambiguous and does not delegate significant powers to third parties)
68
what are two main problems with international law?
1. laws seldom precise enough to deal with every possible interaction between actors
2. it is the product of states interests, they decide the rules by which they will constrain themselves...
69
what are international norms
standards of behaviour for actors with a given identity, they define what actions are appropiate under particular circumstances
70
how are norms created and spread?
**norm entrepeneurs:** individuals or groups that seek to advance standards of behaviour for states and other actors
**transnational advocacy networks:** NGOs acting in pursuit of a normative objective
71
what are the three stages of a norms life cycle
1. norm emergence: norm entrepeneurs e.g. TANs
2. norm cascade: seen in the boomerang model, behavioural conformity achieved through coercion or socialisation
3. norm internalisation, behavioural conformity is not automatic, the norm taken for granted
72
what is the boomerang model with norms?
a process through which NGOs in one state are able to active transnational linkages to bring pressure from other states on their own government
73
what are the three reasons states obey international law
reciprocity: violation legitimises reciprocal violations
retaliation: violation legitimises retaliatory measures
reputation: reputational costs/benefits
74
what are three of the most important parts of the six organs that make up the UN?
1. the UN general assembly: 193 members, develops international law, annual meeting
2. the UN security council: 15 members, 5 permanent members, to maintain peace and security
3. international court of justice: headquarters in the Hague, 15 judges, legally binding decisions and advisory decisions
75
how do materialists view the end of the cold war
purely as a significant shift in the balance of power
76
how did neorealism fail to predict the cold war
- the cold war would continue as long as bipolarity continued
- the system could change only through a hegemonic war
- if the USSR lost then the US would eliminate soviet threat and assert its dominance
- other states in Europe would arm up and form an alliance against the US
77
how did the cold war actually end
- gorbachev brought an end to the brezhnev doctrine after legitimacy deficits in the eastern bloc and anti-totalitarian movements
- a US-Soviet partnership created
- dismemberment of the USSR
- German re-unification and Russia invited to join international community e.g. through NATO membership
78
what are the three modes of social control in each paradigm
1. coercion: the actor fears the punishment of rule enforcers (realism)
2. self-interest: the actor sees the rules as in its own self interest (liberalism)
3. legitimacy: the actor feels the rules are legitimate and should be obeyed (constructivism)
79
how did the world order change following the cold war
from a bipolar system to a unipolar one
80
what are two sources of instability in unipolarity/when you have a hegemon
1. counter hegemonic balancing
2. overburdened hegemon: can't cover the costs of world order
81
what are two sources of stability in unipolarity/when you have a hegemon
1. unipolar threshold: when both external and internal balancing is undermined
2. regional balancing trumps global balancing
82
what are three ways soft balancing may occur?
- very limited warfare
- culture wars that socialise others into adopting values/norms/cultures
- institutional balancing e.g. use of a veto to force the hegemon
83
what are four features of the post wwii order
- growth of multilateral institutions (e.g. NATO)
- growth of economic exchange
- the spread of democratic institutions
- the emergence of the US as the leading actor on the world stage
84
who are three potential groups of challengers to US hegemony
1. states and groups whose interests conflict with the US and its allies e.g. North Korea, Iran etc.
2. states relatively weak when postwar order was constructed and now want to use their increasing power e.g. China, India, Brazil
3. those who see their interests as harmed by globalisation e.g. ?
85
what are three things necessary for MAD to work
1. both sides must have survivable second strike force
2. leaders must be rational
3. in the event of an attack each side must be able to reliably verify where the attack originated as deterrence relied on the expectation that anyone who initiates an attack will face a counterattack
86
if MAD and nuclear deterrence work then why has there been such an effort to stop proliferation? (three reasons)
1. they impact power distribution, a state who acquires a new weapon may seek to revise the status quo
2. states that obtain weapons may not be able to meet the requirements for mututal deterrence e.g. they may not have the resources to build and protect a second-strike force
3. concern that the spread of WMD might fall into terrorist hands
87
what are the two ways to prevent an actor from acquiring WMDs
1. altering their incentives so abstention becomes a better course of action (most states want weapons because they fear attack so this can be mitigated by addressing security interests)
2. preventing the actor from getting the necessary technology and material
88
what is the nuclear non proliferation treaty
prevents all but five states from possessing nuclear weapons
it sets out standards of acceptable behaviour and provides mechanisms for monitoring compliance through the international atomic energy agency
89
under hard power, what are the four strategic functions of military force?
1. defence: minimises danger in case of attack
2. deterrence: dissuades from attacking
3. compellence: persuades others to change their behaviour
4. swaggering: increases prestige (passive)
90
what is incomplete information
- war by misperception
- incentive to misrepresent and private information
91
what are pre-emptive wars
the result of bargaining in the face of a first strike advantage
92
what are preventative wars
the result of bargaining in the face of a shift in the balance of power
93
what is new liberalism?
societal actors rather than simply considerations of power or rational assessment, shape a state's interests
94
how does hegemony differ in realism and constructivism?
realism = unstable, domination, unipolarity
constructivism = legitimate domination, based on legitimacy
95
how does socialisation and norms impact hegemony
- hegemonic orders are produced and maintained through material incentives and norms
- therefore a hegemon can outlive unipolarity
- thus the decline of the US does not indicate a decline of the western liberal international order and neither does the rise of China
96
what is the unipolar threshold
when a state has become too powerful to be balanced against
