Plumpton: Soil Flashcards
What is abstraction?
The process by which humans remove water from its source.
Give three things that Triticum and Hordeum have in common.
- Nodal root system
- Rhizomatous
- Smooth, hairless, glossy leaves!
What are the five main simple leaf shapes?
Note: truncate leaves have a flat base.
What’s an angiosperm?
A flowering plant that produces seeds enclosed within a fruit.
What does “light availability” refer to?
Remember that “light availability” refers not just to the presence of light, but also if it’s the correct wavelength and intensity. Some plants have pigments that can only absorb certain wavelengths!
What do decomposer bacteria do?
They consume easy-to-digest carbon compounds and simple sugars and tie up soluble nutrients like nitrogen in their cell membranes.
What is the formula for respiration?
C6H126O2 –> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP (released energy)
What is the most abundant family of the vascular plants?
The grasses!
Water (both liquid and vapor forms) binds to soil particles through two processes. Name these two processes.
- Adhesion
- Absorption
Do pollen tubes only grow on conspecific stigmas?
Yes - the stigmas have recognition proteins.
What do palisade cells have really high levels of?
Chloroplasts!
Igneous rocks are classified into two groups depending upon ______________________________.
Igneous rocks are classified into two groups depending upon where the molten rock solidifies.
The type of cloud that forms usually depends on what two things?
- The height of the cloud
- The condensation nuclei (e.g., pollen and/or dust).
Give five reasons as to why you would use a soil alternative (e.g., hydroponics and hydroculture).
- Better Yields
- Quicker Growth
- Lower incidences of disease
- Less water wastage
- Control of nutrients
- What’s the bract on a flower?
- Where’s it located?
- How do they look?
- What’s it used for?
- Specialised /modified leaf associated with the reproductive structure.
- One layer lower than the Sepal.
- Typically look different from the parts of the flower.
- Sometimes used for protection, sometime for attracting pollinators.
What’s the difference between granular and crumb peds?
Granular peds are small with rounded surfaces. Crumbs peds are similar but slightly larger.
What’s the only part of a yew tree that isn’t toxic?
The arils.
Stems have cells that produce new living tissue. What are they called? How often do they generate new tissue?
- Meristems
- They generate new tissue annually
When does soil compaction occur?
Involves some sort of critical moment and some sort of limit.
It occurs when the soil is sheared or compressed at the critical moisture content, known as the plastic limit.
Why does increasing temperature increase the rate of evapotranspiration?
Evaporation and diffusion are faster at higher temperatures.
Give three properties of soils with high organic matter content.
One’s to do with water, one’s about how it feels between your fingers, last is a reservoir of sorts…
- Soils high in OM retain more moisture.
- They have a crumbly structure that resists soil compaction.
- They contain a reservoir of nutrients that are slowly released over time.
What are the three main causes of poor soil aeration?
- High soil moisture due to poor infiltration or over irrigation
- Soil compaction
- Over application of organic matter
Label this diagram of a spikelet.
Each piece of pollen creates its own…
Pollen tube.
What is an axil?
The joint between a stem and a leaf petiole.
What is the vascular bundle?
The centre of a root cyclinder that contains xylem and phloem.
How many different soil textural classes are there? How are they represented?
There are 12 classes!
What is the fifth and final stage of mitosis? What’s the final result?
- The cell will completely divide in to two daughter cells as the cytoplasm and cell membrane separate.
- Each daughter cell will be identical to each other and their parent cell. Each daughter will have one nucleus, a complete set of DNA, and a set of organelles and the same amount of cytoplasm as their twin sister cell.
Cytokinesis (occurs at the same time as the telophase).
Are birch trees monoecious or dioecious? When do they flower?
- Monoecious.
- They generally flower between April and May.
What does it mean if a plant is vascular?
The plant contains xylem and phloem.
What can be found amongst phospholipids in a bilayer (not proteins)?
Cholesterol
How many leaflets are found on an ash leaf?
Between 4 to 7 (including the terminal leaflet).
Remember that elder leaves have less leaflets, usually only 5.
What’s erosion?
- Once small pieces of rocks are changed or broken apart by weathering, they may start to be moved by wind, water, or ice.
- When the smaller rock pieces (now pebbles, sand or soil) are moved by natural forces, it is called erosion.
What are the two and a half main drawbacks of deep water culture hydroponics?
- It only really works for water-loving plants.
- Doesn’t work as well with larger plants or plants with long growth cycles.
What’s the point of sepals/calyx when a flower is open?
To protect and support a corolla.
What does soil compaction increase and what does it decrease?
- It increases soil strength
- It decreases soil porosity
Give three things that can alter the pH of soil
Three processes
- Rainfall
- Fertilisation
- Decomposition
Where does light dependent photosynthesis occur?
In the thylakoid membrane.
What are the three different types of autochory?
- Gravity
- Blastochory (seed dispersal via offshoots)
- Ballochory (also called explosive dehiscence)
What is the definition of biological/Darwinian fitness?
The ability to survive to reproductive age, find a mate, and produce offspring.
What is the uppermost part of a grass called?
The flag leaf!
What happens to the outer layer of an ovule once it becomes fertilized?
It becomes lignified and forms a seed coat/testa.
Water has the highest surface tension of any known liquid. True or false?
True! It has a surface tension of 72.8.
This enables capillary action.
Where does light dependent photosynthesis occur? What does it produce?
Within the thlyakoid membranes/granums (remember that this is where chlorophyll is found). It produces ATP.
How are spruce trees pollinated?
Through anemophily (wind pollination).
What is water potential?
It’s a measure of free-moving water molecules within a solvent. The less solutes dissolved in a solvent, the higher the water potential is.
What is leaching? What does it result in?
- Leaching is where excess fertilizer may be washed into lakes, streams, and rivers by surface runoff.
- Causes eutrophication: the overgrowth of algae and microorganisms no longer limited by the availability of nitrogen and phosphorus.
Where does light independent (dark) photosynthesis occur? What does it produce?
- It occurs in the stroma (the cytoplasm of the chloroplast).
- It produces NADPH.
What does a water molecule look like? What are the charges on the oxygen and hydrogen atoms?
Give three ways in which ballochory/explosive dehiscence can occur.
- Through osmosis
- Through dehydration (As the seed pod dehydrates, it tightens and is projected outwards. Seeds are dispersed without any external interference. It takes a lot of effort to do this).
When water freezes, it forms a _______________ structure with each water molecule ______________ bonded to _________ other water molecules.
When water freezes, it forms a crystalline structure with each water molecule hydrogen bonded to four other water molecules.
What’s the first thing to develop inside a fertilized ovule?
Cotyledon(s).
Give two sources of irrigation water.
Water recycling
* Waste water from domestic homes or prior irrigation is filtered, treated, and re-used.
Rain capture
* Rain water is captured and stored for when it’s needed. It’s then pumped to plants (or carried to them by gravity).
* Or the soil is shaped to collect and store water near the plants themselves
What happens to proteins that are modified by the golgi apparatus? (2 Points).
- Modified proteins may remain within the golgi apparatus.
- They may also be packed into vesicles and sent off somewhere.
Give three examples of dioecious angiosperms?
- Asparagus
- Willows
- Cannabis
A plant has…
* Stunted growth
* Necrotic leaf tips
* Is yellow from a lack of chlorophyll…
What element does it desperately need?
Sulphur!
- What’s the endodermis?
- What’s its purpose?
- A layer of cells behind the cortex
- It regulates the flow of materials between the cortex and the vascular tissues
A plant has…
* Yellow leaf edges with brown patches.
* Its fruit also tastes awful…
What element does it need?
Potassium!
Name the three classifications of soil water.
- Hygroscopic
- Capillary
- Gravitational
If a seed is dispersed by endozoochory, what will it possess?
A thick seed coat/testa. Germination is enhanced as it’s weakened by acid.
Name three elements that plants obtain from water and the atmosphere.
- Carbon
- Hydrogen
- Oxygen
Give four things that can cause chemical weathering.
- Carbon dioxide
- Oxygen
- Water
- Acids
How are evergreen branches oriented?
They’re typically oriented downwards so that snow falls off of them more easily (too much snow breaks branches).
Try to recall some of the features of wind pollinated plants and insect pollinated plants.
Petals, nectar, stigma, stamen, and pollen.
What happens to nitrogen once its consumed by an animal (Two possible things)
- It will be incorporated into the animal’s body
- Or it will be excreted as waste (e.g., urea in urine)
What’s the plural of carpel?
Pistil
What do sepals form when a flower is closed?
A bud! They help to protect an embryonic flower from being damaged.
Within a fertilized ovule, the central cell is _______________ while the egg cell is _______________.
- The central cell is triploid (it has 3 sets of chromosomes).
- The egg cell is diploid (it has 2 sets of chromosomes).
I think the central cell develops into the fruit, while the egg cell develops into the seed?
There are dark patches between leaf veins. What element is required?
Magnesium!
What’s the parent/C horizon?
The deposit at Earth’s surface from which the soil developed. It’s made of partly weathered rock.
What percentage of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas?
78%
What’s the optimal soil moisture range for most crops?
The optimal soil moisture range for most crops is typically between 50% and 75% of the soil’s field capacity (the level of capillary soil). This provides a balance between ensuring adequate water availability for plant growth and preventing waterlogging.
Isotonic environments are very rare in nature. What happens if plants do grow in one?
Turgor pressure is slightly reduced and cells become flaccid.
What are the two main benefits of ebb and flow hydroponics?
It’s versatile in some way, and it’s economical!
- Versatile system that can be used with a variety of growing mediums.
- Ensures plants obtain just enough nutrients.
What is a soil amendment?
A soil amendment is any material added to a soil to improve its physical properties, such as water retention, permeability, water infiltration, drainage, aeration and structure.
What is the golgi apparatus made of?
Folded bits of membrane.
Give four things that microtubules are involved with.
- Mitosis
- Cell motility
- Intracellular transport (transport within the cell)
- The maintenance of a cell’s shape
Give two molecules that can pass straight through a phospholipid bilayer.
Oxygen and water (smaller molecules!)
What’s being shown here?
Parallel (monocot) and reticulated (dicot) veins.
What are the three main types of porous/absorbent hydroponic medium?
- Rockwool
- Perlite/vermiculite
- Oasis cubes
Holly trees can make different types of leaves at the same time. What is this ability called?
Heterophylly
Why is acid rain bad?
Even though it doesn’t harm humans, it enters freshwater ecosystems and harms wildlife (since organisms cannot adapt to the acidity).
Both the cell wall and cell membrane are semi-permeable. True or false?
True!
How are the leaves in a deciduous forest arranged?
In strata (e.g., canopy, understorey, shrub, and ground).
Are deciduous trees generally angiosperms?
Yes.
What’s the receptacle on a flower? What does it connect?
- The thickened part of a stem from which the flower organs grow.
- Often enlarged to support the weight of the flower, or the fruit when it develops.
- Connects the pedicle or peduncle to the flower.
What are angiosperms?
They’re flowering plants that contain seeds within fruits.
What’s the female reproductive organ of a flower known as?
The carpel.
How large are silt soil particles/separates?
0.002 to 0.05mm.
The intermediate particles.
What’s wind pollen like? What about insect pollen?
- Small, smooth and light. It also comes in copious amounts.
- Insect pollen is larger and sticky (they have little hairs). They’re also described as “sculpted”.
How can grasses resist droughts?
Thin cell walls allow grasses to do something, which has a good effect…
They are able to resist drought because they have thin-walled cells between the veins of their leaves which keep the leaves expanded under normal conditions but roll up the leaves to slow evaporation during a drought.
How can cells be specialised? (Three examples)
Cells can be specialised by having more mitochondria, chloroplasts, or they may have a more elongated shape.
Which of the three soil water categories is not available to plants?
Hygroscopic (because its water potential is too low).
How does a plant acquire a tasty cation from the soil?
- It must exchange the cation it wants for another one with an equal charge.
- They often use hydrogen ions (H+) that are dispersed from their roots.
- In cases where tasty cations have charges higher than one, then multiple hydrogen ions can be exchanged (e.g., 2 H+’s for a single Ca+2 ion).
Access to the fixed nitrogen allows the plant to produce _________ fortified with _________ that can be ____________________.
Access to the fixed nitrogen allows the plant to produce leaves fortified with nitrogen that can be recycled throughout the plant.
Give five things that are included in a phenotype.
- Appearance
- Development
- Behaviour
- Hormone levels
- Number of blood cells
Give three examples of chemical sedimentary rocks.
- Limestone (again - limestone is formed when minerals dissolve in water, and then the water evaporates, leaving the minerals behind as a layer of sediment).
- Flint (which is a variety of chert).
- Banded iron formations.
What’s the difference between ectomycorrizae and endomycorrhizae?
- Ectomycorrhiza is a type of mycorrhiza in which the fungal hyphae wrap around the plant root and form a mantle, but do not penetrate the root cells.
- Endomycorrhiza is a type of mycorrhiza in which the fungal hyphae penetrate the root cells, but do not form a mantle.
Where are the vast majority of guard cells located on a leaf?
On the underside of it. Specifically, they are found among the lower epidermis.
What’s the main thing that mitochondria produce? What do they need to do this?
- Adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
- They do this with the help of oxygen.
Is gravel a good hydroponic growth medium? What are the two main downsides? What do you have to do with it?
Generally, yes
* Usually fairly cheap, works well and is typically easy to find.
* Supplies plenty of air to the roots
* But it doesn’t retain water, which means roots can dry out quickly.
* Its weight can make it difficult to handle.
* Gravel can easily be reused as long as it is washed and sterilized between crops. Also use heat, steam, bleach or hydrogen peroxide for cleaning.
What occurs during the first stage of mitosis? (4 Points)
- Chromosomes become visible as they condensate (they get shorter and thicker).
- Organelles called centrioles produce mitotic spindle move to opposite ends of the cell.
- The nuclear envelope disintegrates.
- The chromosomes are freed into the cytoplasm.
The prophase
What does the stigma mark the beggining of?
The beginning of the transmitting tract - a tissue enriched in an extracellular (outside cell) polysaccharide matrix that provides guidance and a physical path for the pollen tubes growing toward the ovules.
What’s a leaf’s midrib? What’s its main purpose?
It’s the rib that runs down the middle of the leaf. It adds strength.
Give three grass species that use the “spike” spikelet formation.
- Wall barley
- Perennial rye-grass
- Meadow barley
What exactly is pH?
- The amount (or lack of) hydrogen (H+) ions in a solution (or soil).
- The higher the number of Hydroxide (OH-) ions = higher pH (Alkalis).
What does this graph show?
Compensation points.
* Black line: respiration.
* Green line: photosynthesis.
* Y axis: time of day. The compensation points are when the black and green lines intersect (there are two of them).
* When the green line is above the black line, excess glucose is being produced. This is when starch is produced.
* When the black line is above the green line, there isn’t enough glucose to meet the demands of respiration. This is when starch is hydrolysed (broken down – at night!)
What are the symptoms of calcium deficiency? (Two things)
Poor growth of something, and dead somethings.
- Poor root growth
- Dead leaf tips
How do you do the gravimetric method for measuring soil water content? What’s it’s main upside (and downside)?
- Obtain a soil sample and record the sample weight
- Dry the sample in an oven at 105℃ periodically weighing it until it ceases to loose weight.
- Calculate the water content as percentage lost.
- Accurate but time consuming and laborious.
What’s the level of capillary soil water known as?
Field capacity!
What’s the normal lifespan of plant cells?
One to three years.
Why is ice less dense than water?
Because water molecules are further apart in ice.
How are birch, beech, and ash trees pollinated?
Through anemophily.
Remember that beech trees are mainly wind pollinated.
What is hydroponics? What does hydroponic liquid contain?
We’re looking for five major elements (not the one beggining with C), and any minor elements…
- Hydroponics involves growing plants in a liquid growing medium solution.
- The nutrient solution is a balanced mix of five major nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and sulphur) and a very low concentration of minor nutrients or trace elements; copper, boron, iron, manganese, molybdenum and zinc.
How big are ash tree roots?
- They extend 4 feet downwards.
- They can occupy and area as wide as 48 feet.
What percentage of flowering plants are monoecious angiosperms?
Four percent.
What are the three different types of igneous landscape?
- Sills
- Dykes
- Batholiths
What binds soil particles together to form aggregates?
Water!
In terms of their functionc cotyledons either ___________________ OR they __________________________________________.
Cotyledons either photosynthesise (dicots/epigeal germination) OR they provide nutrients from the endosperm (monocots/hypogeal germination).
What’s notable about grass inflorescences that possess the “spike” formation?
They’re sessile - this means that spikelets lack pedicels and their attached directly to the rachis (main stem bit of the inflorescence).
How are peds categorised?
By their shape. Here are five examples:
* Granuluar/Crumb
* Subangular blocky/Blocky
* Prismatic/Columnar
* Platy
* Single grain/structureless
What’s capillary water? What’s it the main source of?
Capillary water is water that is held in the macropores of soil (spaces between soil particles), and is the main source of moisture for plants.
What is the formula for photosynthesis?
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 (Glucose) + 6O2
What makes up the bulk of a fertilized seed?
The cotyledon(s)!
Most soils have three major horizons. What are they?
A, B and C (Top soil, subsoil, and parent rock).
Note that O (The organic layer) may be absent.
What is the point of adding a soil amendment?
To make conditions better for roots to grow in.
If the female part of a flower is called the gynoecium, then the male part is called the…
Androecium!
What do male and female beech flowers look like?
Male catkins hang down. Female flowers are found in pairs inside “cups”.
What are fungi that feed on dead animals and plants called?
Saprophytic fungi.
What do male and female spruce flowers look like?
- Male flowers consist of clusters of stamens, which turn from red to yellow in spring when laden with pollen.
- Female flowers are red, upright and oval, and tend to form at the top of the tree.
Does the light independent (dark) phase of photosynthesis use or create ATP and NADPH?
It uses them and turns them into ADP + Pi and NAPD+
What wavelengths does chlorophyll absorb? (Just the colours)
It absorbs reddish-orange waves and violent-blue waves. Green waves are reflected.
What does it mean if something is hypotonic? What about hypertonic?
- Hypotonic: a solvent has a low tonicity/concentration of solutes.
- Hypertonic: a solvent has a high tonicity/concentration of solutes.
What are the six main impacts of low soil water content?
For plants
- Reduced plant growth (e.g., reduced leaf SA)
- Wilting
- Malformed root and shoot growth
- Reduced photosynthesis
- Poor seed germination
- Reduced nutrient absorption and transportation
What part of a root performs cell division to produce new cells for the developing root?
The apical meristem (AKA the root tip, but not the root cap which is the true tip).
Does grass die during a fire?
During a fire, while above-ground portions of grasses may perish, the root portions survive to sprout again.
How do fibrous roots develop? What are they characteristic of?
- They begin life as a short-lived primary root.
- As the plant grows it develops more fibrous roots (a root crown).
- They’re characteristic of monocotyledonous plants.
What are the two main benefits of needle leaves?
Some trees have needles as they help to prevent water loss. Needles also help to prevent snow from building up.
How can gypsum be good for soil (two ways)?
- Gypsum can help break up compacted clay soils, making them more porous and able to absorb moisture. This can help with root development and nutrient absorption.
- Gypsum can help soil soak up water after precipitation, reducing runoff.
How can a soil’s structure affect its water content?
More or less aggregated?
Well aggregated soils will hold more water.
What are six qualities of soil that affect water content?
Plus two bonus things!
- Texture
- Structure
- Organic matter
- Density
- Temperature
- Impermeable subsoils
Don’t forget surface seals and hardsetting layers!
What are the symptoms of phosphorus deficiency? (Two things)
- Purple tinge to leaves
- Leathery feel
The shape of a leaf is normally due to _______________ and not ____________.
Its shape is often due to environment and not function.
Does respiration occur at certain times of the day within a plant?
No - respiration is constantly occuring within a plant.
What can be found next to phloem cells? (Name + 3 Points)
Companion cells!
* Transport of substances in the phloem requires energy.
* One or more companion cells attached to each sieve tube provide this energy.
* A sieve tube is completely dependent on its companion cell(s).
Give three SECONDARY plant macronutrients!
- Magnesium
- Calcium
- Sulphur
What are the symptoms of sulphur deficiency? (Four things)
A colour, leaves suffer from two conditions, and stunted…
- Yellow or pale green colouring throughout the plant
- Young leaves suffer from chlorosis (where leaves turn yellow due to a lack of chlorophyll)
- Leaf tips turns necrotic
- Stunted growth
Why do palisade cells have a funny shape?
They have an elogated shape to increase SA for photosynthesis + more chloroplasts!
What’s alkalinity? Why is it important?
A measure of the ability of a solution to neutralize acids, important in determining soil pH and nutrient availability.
What’s an upside and two downsides of epigeal germination?
- You can use light to sustain yourself
- However, shade means death :(
- Above ground cotyledons are also susceptible to predation
Do all dicots use above ground/epigeal germination?
No (but most of them do).
What is podsoliation?
The process by which the upper layer of a soil becomes acidic through the leaching of bases which are deposited in the lower horizons.
Give four examples of metamorphic rocks.
- Gneiss
- Quartzite
- Marble
- Schist
What’s the difference between prismatic and columnar peds?
Prismatic: rectangular with a long vertical dimension and flattened top.
Columnar: rectangular with a long vertical dimension and rounded top.
What sort of barrier does the stigma possess?
An inter-specific incompatibility barrier (prevents fertilisation by interspecific pollen).
Imagine a hydroponics farmy.
Not drip irrigation.
What are glumes?
A pair of bracts at the base of a spikelet.
What are the two different types of zoochory?
- Endozoochory (digestion)
- Epizoochory (externally carried)
On a side note, dispersal by ants is called myrmechory.
How do you identify a female flower on a monoecious angiosperm?
Female flowers have a tiny fruit at the base, males don’t.
Do the cells of the root pericycle last long?
Yes, they last quite long indeed!
Who proposed th theory of evolution through natural selection?
Alfred Russel Wallace (not Charles Darwin!)
Where is the spongy mesophyll located? What’s its main role?
- The spongy mesophyll is found below the palisade mesophyll.
- Its main role is gas exchange (there’s lots of free space within it to help with this).
Sedimentary rock is purely abiotic. True or false?
False, it can be made of bits of dead organism (e.g., limestone).
What are ebb and flow hydroponics?
Ebb and Flow (or Flood and Drain) system works by temporarily flooding the grow tray with nutrient solution and then draining the solution back into a reservoir.
What’s a leaf’s margin?
It’s literally just the edge of the leaf.
Are beech trees monoecious? When do they flower?
Yes, they’re monoecious. They flower between April and May.
Just like birch trees.
Where can starch be stored? What even is starch?
- Starch can be stored in the leaves, stem, and roots.
- Starch is glucose in storage form.
What does evapotranspiration create?
A vacuum/lack of pressure (9 atmospheres) that causes water to be pulled up.
What are the five different things that can cause weathering?
- Water
- Air
- Chemicals
- Plant
- Animals
What are dead, lignified cells called?
Wood!
What happens if plants can’t create enough starch during the winter? (Two examples)
They may stop their growth or shed their leaves.
“Infiltration” is often used interchangably with what other word?
Percolation.
What’s anaerobic respiration?
Respiration that occurs without oxygen, producing less energy and resulting in by-products like ethanol or lactic acid.
How is the “panicle” spikelet inflorescence arrangement defined?
“Primary axis bears branched secondary axes with spikelets on pedicels.”
“Branched branches”.
What do plants use potassium for? (Four things)
- Flowering
- Fruit ripening
- Disease resistance
- Water regulation
What occurs during the fourth stage of mitosis?
- The chromatids reach opposite poles of the cell.
- Now, the chromatids uncoil and become long and thin again and can be called chromosomes again.
- The nuclear envelope reforms around the chromosomes. A nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes – one on each pole of the cell. Therefore the cell now has two nuclei, each with a complete set of identical DNA.
The telophase
What do ash flowers look like? When do they appear?
Both male and female flowers are purple and appear before the leaves in spring, growing in spiked clusters at the tips of twigs.
Give four photosynthetic pigments that aren’t chlorophyll a and b. What wavelengths do they reflect?
LBZL
- Lutein (Yellow)
- Beta-carotene (Orange)
- Zeaxanthin (Yellow)
- Lycopene (Red)
What’s the most common type of hydroponics farm and how does it work? Is the system unique to hydroponics?
Drip irrigation (AKA slow feed systems)
* A timer controls a submersed pump.
* The timer turns the pump on and nutrient solution is dripped onto the base of each plant by a small drip line.
* Drip systems are not unique to hydroponics. Such a setup is also widely used in outdoor agriculture to deliver water and nutrients to individual plants and works equally well with soil as well as growing media.
How’s vascular tissue arranged in a monocot stem? What about a dicot stem?
- In a monocot, vascular tissue is arranged sporadically.
- In a dicot, it’s far more arranged and tidy.
What percentage of SOM do most soils have? What about cultivated soils?
- Most productive soils have between 3 and 6% organic matter
- Mineral soils form most of the world’s cultivated land and may contain from 0 to 30 percent organic matter.
Where is the endoplasmic reticulum located? What’s it made of?
The endoplasmic reticulum shares part of its membrane with that of the nucleus. Its mainly comprised of water, salts, and proteins.
Name some soil micronutrients that plants need.
- Boron (B)
- Chlorine (Cl)
- Copper (Cu)
- Iron (Fe)
- Manganese (Mn)
- Molybdenum (Mo)
- Zinc (Zn)
- Nickel (Ni)
Is transpiration an active process?
No, it’s a passive process.
Are expanded clay pellets expensive? Is this really an issue?
They are expensive, but they’re one of the few kinds of media that can be easily reused by removing old roots and sterilising with bleach, steam, heat or hydrogen peroxide.
What’s eluviation?
The sideways or downward movement of dissolved or suspended material within soil caused by rainfall.
What are biological sedimentary rocks? Give three different examples.
Biological sedimentary rocks form when living organisms die, pile up, and are then compressed and cemented together.
Types of biological sedimentary rock include:
* Coal (accumulated plant material that is carbon-rich).
* Limestone.
* Coquina (rocks made of marine organisms).
Wherever water goes (either through the air, the ground, or our bodies) things are dragged with it. Why?
Because of its polarity!
What is the role of ATP?
To store energy.
Give a diagram that shows the three different water types.
Transport in the xylem is a ____________________. It does not ____________________.
Transport in the xylem is a physical process. It does not require energy.
What’s a pro and a con of anemophilous pollination?
- Pro: doesn’t depend on insects
- Con: less targeted/pollen can get carried away by strong winds
Hazel nuts are tasty. How are dispersed?
- Some animals will stash them away.
- They’ll then forget about them and the nuts will develop into new trees!
What’s a culm? What is one made up of?
- A hollow and pithy grass stem.
- They’re made up of internodes that are joined together by nodes.
What do multiple water molecules look like?
What sprouts from a taproot?
Secondary and tertiary roots.
Why does the spongy mesophyll layer exist?
Because palisade cells are tightly packed together, gases can’t get through them easily. This is what the spongy mesophyll layer is for.
What does semi-permeable mean?
It means that some things can pass through a membrane, while other things can’t.
What can’t fibrous roots support? Where can’t they survive?
Anything that’s too top heavy. They can’t survive in thick soils (e.g., clay).
What are the three main sections of a cell?
- The cell membrane
- The cytoplasm
- The nucleus
Give four cons of using organic compounds
Less control, speed, price, related to the first one.
- There’s less control over nutrient levels
- They tend to be slower acting
- They’re quite expensive
- You need to mix multiple fertilisers to achieve the correct balance of nutrients
What’s a leaf’s apex?
Literally just the tip of a leaf.
What’s the name of a grass’s…
* Seed head
* Leaf
* Stem
- Seed head: Inflorescence
- Leaf: Lamina
- Stem: Culm
What percent of green plants are angiosperms?
Roughly 80% of all green plants.
What’s hygroscopic water?
Hygroscopic water is a thin film of water that adheres to soil particles. It is absorbed from the atmosphere (meaning that’s where it comes from).
What’s an anther?
The part of a stamen that contains the pollen.
Fill in the rock cycle!
Describe coconut coir as a hydroponic growth medium.
What’s it made of, why is it so good, how’s the ratio, where would it go otherwise, what’s its downside?
- Made from ground up coconut husks.
- Coconut nusk acts as a great growing medium for the coconut to germinate and create new trees.
- Great air to water ratio.
- Would generally go to waste or be composted if they weren’t used in hydroponic applications.
- Holds a lot of water and may drown plants.
What are the four different categories of hydroponic growth medium?
- Large particle material
- Fibrous material
- Porous and absorbent material
- Composted or aged material
What do xerophytic plants’ mesophyll cells do to their food?
In xerophytic plants, mesophyll cells store water and food in soluble forms.
How do igneous rocks form?
Cooling can be divided into two processes…
Igneous rocks form when hot, molten rock (magma) crystallizes and solidifies.
What are tubers? Give a classic example.
- Storage organs that are modified stems.
- They’re horizontal and they grow above the root crown.
- Potatoes are a classic example.
What determines a clay soil particle’s cation exchange capacity?
- Its charge (e.g., how negatively charged it is so it can hold onto cations).
- Its surface area (so there’s more space for cations to bind).
What are the four different types of leaf margin? What’s a key difference between two of these?
Entire, toothed, lobed, and parted.
If a midrib goes more than halfway up a stem, then it’s parted. If it doesn’t, it’s lobed (I think).
What causes precipitation to occur? What bonus thing is required?
Name two different processes.
- When the tiny condensation particles grow too large, through collision and coalescence, for the rising air to support, and thus fall to the earth.
- Precipitation requires tiny water droplets to condense on even tinier dust, salt, or smoke particles, which act as a nucleus.
Do chalky soils have a high or low pH?
They have a high pH (they’re alkaline).
What is found at the very tip of an epicotyl?
The plumule (which develops into the shoot!)
Why is stopping photosynthesis good for a thirsty plant?
Because it uses water. When water levels run low, guard cells close and photosynthesis stops (no CO2 entering the plant!)
What happens to female beech flowers as they mature?
The cup becomes woody once pollinated, and encloses one or two beech nuts (known as beechmast).
What are aeroponics? What’s its main downside?
- Probably the most high-tech type of hydroponic gardening.
- The roots hang in the air and are misted with nutrient solution. The mistings are usually done every few minutes.
- A timer controls the nutrient pump much like other types of hydroponic systems, except the aeroponic system needs a short cycle timer that runs the pump for a few seconds every couple of minutes.
- Because the roots are exposed to the air, they will dry out rapidly if the misting cycles are interrupted.
Two things get fertilized inside a plant ovule. What are they?
- The central cell gets fertilized by one sperm
- And the egg cell gets fertilized by another sperm
Water has very high solvent power. What does this mean? (3 Points)
- More things can dissolve in it than anything else. It is referred to as a universal solvent.
- This is because water’s polarity allows it to attract other polar molecules, like glucose.
- It’s also why oil won’t mix because it’s not polar.
Give four cons of using inorganic fertilisers
- Their production creates environmental damage
- They contribute to groundwater pollution
- They contain salts that can burn plants
- You need to mix multiple fertilisers to achieve the correct nutrient balance (just like organic fertilisers)
Are hollies dioecious or monoecious?
They’re both!
What’s the carpel also known as (not its plural).
The gynoecium.
What are the symptoms of potassium deficiency? (Two things)
Taste related, and a certain leaf part turns into certain colours (2 to be exact) - think of bananas.
- Yellowing on leaf edges, followed by brown patches
- Fruits will have a poor flavour
Phloem cells have large __________ which join to the __________ in the next phloem cell to make a _______.
Phloem cells have large vacuoles which join to the vacuoles in the next phloem cell to make a tube.
What factors can affect seed viability/the capacity of a seed to produce a seedling that can reproduce if everything goes well? (4 Points)
- The ability of the mother plant to produce viable seeds
- Predator and pathogen damage
- Environmental conditions like flooding or heat
- The age of the seed also affects its health and germination ability.
A flowering plant that possesses both male and female flowers is called a what?
A monoecious angiosperm!
What are stolons? What are they also known as?
- Stolons are above ground, horizontal stems with nodes, internodes, and leaves.
- They’re also known as “runners”.
Each phloem sieve tube has a ____________________ end so its _________________ connects ____________________.
Each phloem sieve tube has a perforated end so its cytoplasm connects one cell to the next.
When do yew trees flower? Are they monoecious or dioecious?
- They flower between March and April
- They’re dioecious
Soil structure is comprised of different layers (called horizons). What are these different horizons called?
OAEBCR
* O: Organic layer (humus)
* A: Topsoil (minerals with humus)
* E: Eluviation layer (leached minerals and organic matter)
* B: Subsoil (deposited minerals and metal salts)
* C: Parent rock (partly weathered rock)
* R: Bedrock (unweathered parent rock)
Oh, An Enormous Baby Cute Rat…
What does cytoplasmic mean?
It means that something relates to the interior of a cell.
What’s more important to plants: water or nutrients?
Water. Without it, nothing can get to where it needs to be within the plant.
What are stomata (singular: stoma) surrounded by?
Guard cells!
What’s the most basic type of hydroponics? Why’s it called that?
Deep water culture
Called Deep Water Culture for two reasons.
* One, you typically grow with a reservoir that can hold a decent amount of water.
* Two, because of how much of the root mass you submerge in the water. In deep water culture, most of your plant’s root system is submerged 24/7
Floating mats suspend the plants with their roots directly in a nutrient solution. An air pump supplies oxygen to the solution.
Give four things that improve in a soil when you add organic matter to it.
- Aeration
- Water drainage
- Root growth
- Biological activity
What happens when a plant grows in a hypertonic environment?
Water gets removed from cells via osmosis. Cells then shrink and lose turgor pressure.
Give six management practices that can help overcome restrictive soil layers.
Maintaining stubble cover.
Organic matter application.
Gypsum application.
Pasture phase.
Minimising traffic.
Rotation with deep-rooting crops.
When does surface run-off occur?
- Whenever the precipitation rate is greater than the infiltration capacity, surface runoff occurs.
- Surface Runoff occurs when there is excessive precipitation and the ground is saturated (cannot absorb any more water).
What occurs during the third stage of mitosis?
- The spindle fibres begin pulling the sister chromatids away from each other to opposite poles of the cell. This breaks the centromeres of the chromosomes.
- This splits each chromosome into two V-shaped sister chromatid structures.
The anaphase
What are a bunch of petals collectively known as?
The corolla.
What’s mechanical weathering? What five things can cause it?
- Mechanical weathering is the process of breaking a large rock into smaller pieces without changing the minerals in the rock.
- Mechanical weathering may be caused by:
- Frost
- Ice
- Plant roots
- Running water
- Heat from the sun.
What do plants use calcium for? (Two things)
Calcium is for structural purposes in the cell walls and membranes, basically to keep cell walls together, and also other for metabolic functions.
What is a grass leaf ligule?
Membrane-like tissue on the inner side of the collar.
What sort of soils need to be fertilised more often?
Soils with low CEC (cation exchange capacity). Remember that the higher a soil’s CEC, the more nutrients it can hold at any given time.
What are oasis cubes? What are they made from and when are they often used?
Cubes made from rock that has been melted and spun into fibrous cubes and growing slab. Plants sit in them.
* They’re rigid, open-celled, water-absorbing pieces of foam specifically designed for optimal callus and rapid root formation.
* Made from phenolic foam, oasis cubes are most often used as a rooting media in commercial floriculture and make a great medium for starting seeds and cuttings in hydroponic production.
When is starch used?
When photosynthesis can’t take place.
Why does sand make so a bad hydroponic growth medium?
- It has low water-holding capacity
- It has a tendency to pack tightly together, reducing the amount of air available to roots
Sand is the oldest known hydroponic medium.
Cytoplasm has form and structure. True or false?
True - it’s highly organised. A framework of protein scaffolds called the cytoskeleton provides the cytoplasm with its structure.
Is soil acidification a natural process?
Yes, but it’s sped-up by intensive agriculture.
How can seed viability be assessed through looking at its texture? (3 Points)
How much space should be filled, what colour, how should it feel, and what three things should be identifiable?
- A cut test is performed where a seed is cut in half so that the contents inside can be assessed.
- Viable seeds will usually fill all the space inside the seed coat, be white in colour, feel firm, and the embryo of the seeds usually identifiable form the endosperm or starch supply.
- This will kill the seed :(
What two types of fertilization occur when a pollen tube extends into an ovule?
- The actual seed itself is fertilized by one gamete.
- The other gamete either fertilizes the central cell to create a fruit (in dicots) or a seed’s endosperm (in monocots).
How do animals and plants release carbon through cellular respiration?
- Animals - they breathe out CO2
- Plants - they transpire it through their stomata
Why is chlorophyll green?
Because it reflects green light - all other waves are absorbed. Remember that green waves need to come into contact with your eyes in order for you to perceive them.
Are all deciduous trees dioecious?
No, you get a mix of monoecious and dioecious trees.
What sort of root system do almost all dicots have?
Tap root systems.
What are clastic sedimentary rocks? What are clasts larger than 2mm called?
Begins with a P…
- They’re made up of pieces (clasts) of pre-existing rocks loosened by weathering.
- They have particles ranging in size from microscopic clay to huge boulders; their names are determined by the clast or grain size.
- Smallest grains/clasts are called clay, then silt, then sand.
- Clasts larger than 2 millimeters are called pebbles.
What are the three main advantages of self-pollination?
- It’s not dependent on pollinating agents.
- If a given genotype is well-suited for an environment, self-pollination helps to keep this trait stable in the species.
- Number of flowers are small or widely spaced.
Give five factors that affect soil health.
NBFLO - Never Bite Funny Looking Ookies - because they’re unhealthy!
- Nitrogen cycle.
- Bacterial activity.
- Fungi.
- Living Organisms.
- Organic Matter.
- Where is a root’s cortex?
- What’s its main purpose?
- What’s it made of?
- Located on the inside of the epidermis.
- The cortex of herbaceous dicot roots is composed mostly of loosely packed parenchyma cells.
- The primary function is the storage of starches.
What are three main ways in which leaves can be arranged on a stem?
Alternate, opposite, and whorled.
Fertilisers add salts. How can salts affect plants?
- Salts can burn plants
- Too many soluble salts can also cause leaves to wilt and turn yellow
When water enters a plant cell, it pushes against the cell membrane (which pushes against the cell wall). What does this create?
Turgor pressure (and turgidity).
What are the symptoms of magnesium deficiency? (One thing)
Dark patches between the leaf veins
What is the cytoiskeleton?
- The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments.
- It also contains microtubules.
- Another component is actin. Filaments that are made of actin are responsible for positioning the organelles within a cell.
What is the infiltration rate of a soil?
Infiltration rate is the amount of water that enters the soil in a specified time period.
What is a sessile leaf?
A leaf with no petiole. Grass blades are counted as sessile leaves.
What does pH actually stand for?
Potential of Hydrogen
What is mulch?
Actively decomposing plant material.
What can a plant stem be divided into?
What three things can grow from nodes?
Nodes and internodes.
* The nodes hold one or more leaves, as well as buds which can grow into branches (with leaves, conifer cones, or inflorescences (flowers)). Adventitious roots may also be produced from the nodes.
* The internodes distance one node from another.
What are ribosomes? What are the five places where you can find them?
Ribosomes are organelles that synthesise proteins.
* They’re found in the cytoplasm
* The rough endoplasmic reticulum
* The nucleus
* Mitochondria
* Chloroplasts
What’s SOM?
Soil Organic Matter
* Soil organic matter is the fraction of the soil that consists of plant or animal tissue in various stages of breakdown.
* On the basis of organic matter content, soils are characterized as mineral or organic.
What organelles do xylem cells contain?
- A nucleus
- A vacuole that joins to other xylem vacuoles to create a tube
- That’s it!
Amount of hygroscopic water varies _______________ with the size of the _________________. Finer textured soils with high __________________ will absorb and hold far more hygroscopic water than ___________________.
Amount of hygroscopic water varies inversely with the size of the soil particles. Finer textured soils with high clay content will absorb and hold far more hygroscopic water than coarse, sandy soils.
What does a single ovule develop into once it’s fertilized?
A seed.
What does the secondary cell wall do?
The secondary layer provides physical and chemical defence!
Name two different modified grass stems.
- Stolons
- Rhizomes
Both possess internodes and nodes.
Is seed dormancy common? What’s the point of it? What two components are involved in dormancy?
- Yes, seed dormancy is common.
- It allows plants to hold-off germination until conditions are suitable. This gives plants the best chance at life.
- Normally some genetic component involved, but the environment plays a large part as well.
What do cotyledons do in epigeal/above ground germinated plants?
They develop chloroplasts and turn green, allowing them to provide energy for the rest of the plant.
It is said that each soil horizon tells its own…
Story.
Give two minor benefits of being a grass.
- Your soft stem allows you to bend in the wind.
- It also allows you to take advantage of anemophily.
What’s the sepal on a flower?
- Green parts that surround and protect the flower bud and extend from the base of a flower after it has opened.
- Support the petals once in bloom.
- Size and shape varies with species.
What are the two main reticulated leaf venation patterns? What’s the main difference between the two?
The difference between pinnate and palmate leaves is that pinnate leaves have a central vein – palmate leaves do not.
What do beech leaves look like when they’re young?
They start off furry :3 The fur is lost and they get older (they also become less lime-coloured and more dark).
What are two obvious features you can use to differentiate a monocot from a dicot?
Monocot left, dicot right.
What do birch tree catkins look like?
Note that female catkins are shorter, green and upright.
What’s a surface seal? Just how porous is it?
- A surface seal or crust is a thin layer (1−10mm) formed on the soil surface by water drop impact.
- It can have a porosity 90% lower than that of an unsealed soil.
- Permeability declines during rain or irrigation when the surface aggregates break down and are compacted under drop impact.
Name three bonus grass leaf components.
- Collar (outside of the leaf at the junction between the sheath and the blade).
- Ligules
- Auricles
What are the three different types of grass leaf sheath?
S.O.U.
Fill in the blanks!
What part of this is a cotyledon? What will it do? Is this epigeal or hypogeal germination?
- The oval bit (there’s another one on the other side).
- It will develop chloroplasts and photosynthesise, enabling the production of glucose.
- Since the cotyledons are above ground, this is epigeal germination.
What happens to female conifer flowers once they become pollinated?
Once pollinated by wind, female flowers turn green and enlarge to become red-brown cones with diamond-shaped, rounded scales.
What are the three parts of a vacuole that you need to know?
Name all 6 of the ways water can change state.
FM, VC, DS
What are the two leaf arrangement patterns?
Simple and compound.
Label the leaf!
- Vein
- Leaf base
- Lamina
- Venule
- Margin
- Midrib
- Peiole
- Apex
What are the four different types of adventitious roots?
(Note that etiolation is where plants are grown without light. The roots grow when the plant is exposed to light).
What are other words for “above ground” and “below ground” germination.
Epigeal and hypogeal.
What are auricles?
Small appendages at the junctions between grass blades and sheaths.
Grass leaf ligules come in three different varieties. What are they?
- Hairy
- Absent
- and membrane-like
What do auricles look like on a real piece of grass?
What’s the peduncle on a flower (and pedicels?)
- A short flower stalk in an inflorescence or cluster of flowers.
- Hold individual flowers in place and exposes them to the sun and wind and put them in a position so their aroma and colour attracts pollinating insects more easily.
- Groups of pedicels form an inflorescence branched from the peduncle (Main stem).
How do rainwater droplets change shape as they grow? Why does this happen?
- Small raindrops (radius < 1 millimeter (mm)) are spherical; larger ones assume a shape more like that of a hamburger bun.
- When they get larger than a radius of about 4.5 mm they rapidly become distorted into a shape rather like a parachute with a tube of water around the base — and then they break up into smaller drops.
- This evolution results from a tug-of-war between two forces: the surface tension of the water and the pressure of the air pushing up against the bottom of the drop as it falls. When the drop is small, surface tension wins and pulls the drop into a spherical shape. With increasing size, the fall velocity increases and the pressure on the bottom increases, changing the droplet’s shape.
Which leaf is a monocot leaf? Which one is a dicot leaf?
- Left: Monocot.
- RIght: Dicot.
What do cross-sections of dicot and monocot stems look like?
Don’t get these mixed up!
What happens to this bell curve during the winter?
It becomes more constricted due to less light.
What do spruce leaves look like?
Dark green, waxy, and spiked!
What’s a sill? Give an example.
- Sills form when magma intrudes between the rock layers, forming a horizontal or gently-dipping sheet of igneous rock.
- The Whin Sill in N. England provided a defensive cliff-line on which the Romans built Hadrian’s Wall.
Fill in the blanks!
How is the “raceme” spikelet inflorescence arrangement defined?
“Spikelets are stalked on pedicels directly from the primary axis.”
This formation is quite rare.
Spikelets can be arranged in three different patterns. What are they?
Spikelets collectively make up a grass inflorescence.
- Raceme
- Panicle
- Spike
Imagine two diagrams that show monocot and dicot root tissues.
