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Diversity In Living World > Plant Kingdom > Flashcards

Plant Kingdom Flashcards

1
Q

What types of organisms were previously included in the Plantae kingdom but are now excluded?

A

Fungi, Monera, and Protista with cell walls.

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2
Q

What are cyanobacteria commonly referred to as, and how has their classification changed?

A

Cyanobacteria are also called blue-green algae, but they are no longer classified as ‘algae’.

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3
Q

Which plant groups are described under Plantae in this chapter?

A

Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, and Angiosperms.

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4
Q

What did the earliest systems of classification use to categorize plants?

A

Gross superficial morphological characters such as habit, color, number, and shape of leaves.

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5
Q

What were some limitations of the early classification systems?

A

They were artificial, separated closely related species, and gave equal weight to vegetative and sexual characteristics.

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6
Q

What is the basis of natural classification systems?

A

Natural affinities among organisms, considering both external and internal features.

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7
Q

Who developed a natural classification system for flowering plants?

A

George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker.

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8
Q

What does phylogenetic classification assume about organisms in the same taxa?

A

They have a common ancestor.

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9
Q

What role does numerical taxonomy play in classification?

A

It assigns numbers and codes to observable characteristics, processing data with equal importance given to each character.

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10
Q

What information does cytotaxonomy use for classification?

A

Cytological information such as chromosome number, structure, and behavior.

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11
Q

What does chemotaxonomy use to resolve classification issues?

A

Chemical constituents of plants.

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12
Q

What characteristics define algae?

A

Chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic, and largely aquatic organisms.

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13
Q

Where can algae be found besides aquatic environments?

A

On moist stones, soils, wood, and in association with fungi and animals

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14
Q

What forms and sizes can algae exhibit?

A

Colonial forms like Volvox, filamentous forms like Ulothrix and Spirogyra, and massive marine forms like kelps.

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15
Q

How does vegetative reproduction occur in algae?

A

Through fragmentation, where each fragment develops into a new thallus

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16
Q

What are the types of asexual reproduction in algae?

A

Production of different types of spores, especially zoospores, which are flagellated and motile.

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17
Q

How does sexual reproduction occur in algae?

A

Through the fusion of gametes, which can be isogamous, anisogamous, or oogamous.

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18
Q

What is isogamous reproduction in algae?

A

Fusion of two gametes that are similar in size.

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19
Q

What is anisogamous reproduction in algae?

A

Fusion of two gametes that are dissimilar in size

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20
Q

What is oogamous reproduction in algae?

A

Fusion of a large, non-motile female gamete with a smaller, motile male gamete.

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21
Q

How do algae benefit humans?

A

They fix carbon dioxide, increase dissolved oxygen, serve as primary producers, and provide food and commercial products like algin, carrageen, and agar.

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22
Q

What are the three main classes of algae?

A

Chlorophyceae (green algae), Phaeophyceae (brown algae), and Rhodophyceae (red algae).

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23
Q

What are the defining features of Chlorophyceae (green algae)?

A

Green color due to chlorophyll a and b, various forms (unicellular, colonial, filamentous), and pyrenoids in chloroplasts.

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24
Q

What are the main reproductive methods of Chlorophyceae?

A

Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation, asexual reproduction by flagellated zoospores, and sexual reproduction which can be isogamous, anisogamous, or oogamous.

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25
Q

Where are Phaeophyceae (brown algae) primarily found?

A

In marine habitats.

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26
Q

What pigments and food storage forms are associated with Phaeophyceae?

A

Chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids, xanthophylls, and complex carbohydrates like laminarin or mannitol.

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27
Q

How does sexual reproduction in Phaeophyceae differ?

A

It can be isogamous, anisogamous, or oogamous, with gametes being pyriform and bearing two flagella.

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28
Q

What are the defining features of Rhodophyceae (red algae)?

A

Red pigment r-phycocyanin, mostly marine, and food stored as floridean starch.

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29
Q

How do Rhodophyceae reproduce?

A

Vegetatively by fragmentation, asexually by non-motile spores, and sexually by non-motile gametes with complex post-fertilization developments.

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30
Q

Examples of rhodophyceae

A

Polysiphonia
Porphyra
Gelidium
Gracilaria

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31
Q

Describe what an antheridiophore is

A

An antheridiophore is a structure in
bryophytes that bears antheridia, the male
reproductive organs.

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32
Q

Define archegoniophore

A

An archegoniophore is a structure in
bryophytes that bears archegonia, the female

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33
Q

How is a gemma cup used in bryophytes?

A

A gemma cup is a structure that produces
gemmae, which are asexual reproductive
structures used for vegetative propagation.

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34
Q

Do rhizoids have a specific function in
bryophytes?

A

Rhizoids in bryophytes anchor the plant to the
substrate and absorb water and nutrients.

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35
Q

Describe the structure of an antheridial
capsule

A

An antheridial capsule is the structure
containing antheridia, which produce sperm (spores) through meiosis
in bryophytes. Part of sporophyte that is non photosynthetic.

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36
Q

Define sporophyte in bryophytes

A

The sporophyte in bryophytes is the diploid
phase of the plant that produces spores
through meiosis.

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37
Q

How do leaves contribute to bryophytes?

A

Leaves in bryophytes are structures that aid
in photosynthesis and gas exchange.

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38
Q

Do branches play a role in bryophytes?

A

Branches in bryophytes help in the spread of
the plant and provide additional surface area
for photosynthesis.

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39
Q

Describe the main axis in bryophytes

A

The main axis in bryophytes is the central
stem-like structure that supports the plant
and connects various parts like leaves and
branches.

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40
Q

Define gametophyte in bryophytes

A

The gametophyte in bryophytes is the haploid
phase of the plant that produces gametes
through mitosis.

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41
Q

What are bryophytes commonly found growing?

A

In moist shaded areas in the hills.

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42
Q

Why are bryophytes called amphibians of the plant kingdom?

A

They can live in soil but are dependent on water for sexual reproduction.

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43
Q

What role do bryophytes play in plant succession?

A

They help in plant succession on bare rocks/soil.

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44
Q

How is the plant body of bryophytes differentiated from algae?

A

It is more differentiated, thallus-like, and can be prostrate or erect with unicellular or multicellular rhizoids for attachment.

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45
Q

What structures do bryophytes lack?

A

True roots, stems, or leaves.

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46
Q

What is the main plant body of a bryophyte called and what is its ploidy?

A

Gametophyte, and it is haploid.

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47
Q

What are the male and female sex organs in bryophytes called?

A

Male: antheridium; Female: archegonium
They are multicellular

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48
Q

Anthrezoid are and egg is

A

Biflagellated ; non motile

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49
Q

How do antherozoids and eggs interact in bryophytes?

A

Antherozoids swim to the archegonium and fuse with the egg to form a zygote.

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50
Q

What does the zygote develop into in bryophytes?

A

A multicellular sporophyte.

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51
Q

How does the sporophyte obtain nourishment in bryophytes?

A

It is attached to the gametophyte and derives nourishment from it.

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52
Q

What happens to some cells of the sporophyte?

A

They undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores.

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53
Q

What is the economic importance of some bryophytes?

A

Mosses provide food for animals, peat for fuel, and packing material.

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54
Q

How do mosses and lichens contribute ecologically?

A

They colonize rocks, decompose them, and reduce soil erosion.

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55
Q

What are the two main groups of bryophytes?

A

Liverworts and mosses.

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56
Q

Where do liverworts typically grow?

A

In moist, shady habitats such as stream banks, marshy ground, and tree bark.

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57
Q

What is the structure of a liverwort’s plant body?

A

Thalloid, with a dorsiventral thallus closely appressed to the substrate.

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58
Q

How does asexual reproduction occur in liverworts?

A

By fragmentation or formation of gemmae in gemma cups.

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59
Q

What are gemmae in liverworts?

A

Green, multicellular asexual buds that detach and germinate into new individuals.

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60
Q

What are the structures of the sporophyte in liverworts?

A

Foot, seta, and capsule.

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61
Q

What stages are involved in the moss life cycle?

A

Protonema stage and leafy stage.

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62
Q

What characterizes the protonema stage in mosses?

A

It is a creeping, green, branched, and filamentous stage

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63
Q

What characterizes the leafy stage in mosses?

A

Upright, slender axes bearing spirally arranged leaves.

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64
Q

How does vegetative reproduction occur in mosses?

A

By fragmentation and budding in the secondary protonema.

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65
Q

What structures are involved in sexual reproduction in mosses?

A

Antheridia and archegonia at the apex of the leafy shoots

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66
Q

What does the sporophyte in mosses consist of?

A

Foot, seta, and capsule, and it is more elaborate than in liverworts.

67
Q

What are some common examples of mosses?

A

Funaria, Polytrichum, and Sphagnum.

68
Q

What plants are included in the Pteridophytes?

A

Horsetails and ferns

69
Q

What are some uses of Pteridophytes?

A

Medicinal purposes, soil-binders, and ornamentals.

70
Q

What is the evolutionary significance of Pteridophytes?

A

They are the first terrestrial plants to possess vascular tissues – xylem and phloem.

71
Q

Where are Pteridophytes typically found?

A

In cool, damp, shady places, though some can grow in sandy-soil conditions

72
Q

What is the dominant phase in the life cycle of Pteridophytes?

A

sporophyte phase

73
Q

What are the main plant body organs of Pteridophytes?

A

True root, stem, and leaves

74
Q

What types of leaves do Pteridophytes have?

A

Small (microphylls) like in Selaginella, or large (macrophylls) like in ferns.

75
Q

What are sporophylls in Pteridophytes?

A

Leaf-like appendages that subtend sporangia.

76
Q

What are strobili or cones in Pteridophytes?

A

Distinct compact structures formed by sporophylls in some Pteridophytes.

77
Q

How are spores produced in Pteridophytes?

A

By meiosis in spore mother cells within sporangia.

78
Q

What do spores of Pteridophytes develop into?

A

Inconspicuous, small, multicellular, free-living, mostly photosynthetic gametophytes called prothallus.

79
Q

Where do prothallus gametophytes require to grow?

A

Cool, damp, shady places.

80
Q

What are the male and female sex organs in Pteridophytes called?

A

Male: antheridia; Female: archegonia.

81
Q

What is necessary for the transfer of antherozoids to the archegonium in Pteridophytes?

A

Water

82
Q

What does the fusion of male gametes with the egg in the archegonium produce?

A

A zygote

83
Q

What does the zygote in Pteridophytes develop into?

A

A multicellular, well-differentiated sporophyte.

84
Q

What are homosporous Pteridophytes?

A

Plants where all spores are of similar kinds.

85
Q

What are heterosporous Pteridophytes?

A

Plants like Selaginella and Salvinia that produce two kinds of spores: macro (large) and micro (small).

86
Q

What do megaspores and microspores produce in heterosporous Pteridophytes?

A

Female and male gametophytes, respectively

87
Q

What do megaspores and microspores produce in heterosporous Pteridophytes?

A

Female and male gametophytes, respectively.

88
Q

What is a significant evolutionary step observed in some Pteridophytes?

A

The development of zygotes into young embryos within female gametophytes, a precursor to the seed habit.

89
Q

Into how many classes are Pteridophytes classified?

A
90
Q

Into how many classes are Pteridophytes classified?

A

Four

91
Q

Name the four classes of Pteridophytes.

A

Psilopsida, Lycopsida, Sphenopsida, and Pteropsida

92
Q

Give examples of plants in the class Psilopsida.

A

Psilotum

93
Q

Give examples of plants in the class Lycopsida.

A

Selaginella, Lycopodium.

94
Q

Give examples of plants in the class Sphenopsida.

A

Equisetum

95
Q

Give examples of plants in the class Pteropsida.

A

Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum.

96
Q

What does “gymnosperm” mean?

A

Naked seed

97
Q

In gymnosperms, how are ovules and seeds positioned?

A

Ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall and remain exposed; seeds are naked.

98
Q

What types of plants are included in gymnosperms?

A

Medium-sized or tall trees and shrubs

99
Q

Name a notable gymnosperm and its characteristic.

A

Giant redwood tree Sequoia, one of the tallest tree species.

100
Q

What type of root system do gymnosperms generally have?

A

Tap roots.

101
Q

What are mycorrhizae in gymnosperms, and give an example?

A

Fungal associations; example: Pinus.

102
Q

What are coralloid roots, and which gymnosperm has them?

A

Specialized roots associated with N2-fixing cyanobacteria; example: Cycas.

103
Q

Describe the stems of gymnosperms

A

Stems may be unbranched (e.g., Cycas) or branched (e.g., Pinus, Cedrus)

104
Q

How are the leaves of gymnosperms adapted to environmental extremes?

A

Needle-like leaves reduce surface area; thick cuticle and sunken stomata reduce water loss.

105
Q

Are gymnosperms homosporous or heterosporous?

A

Heterosporous.

106
Q

What are the two types of spores produced by gymnosperms?

A

Microspores and megaspores.

107
Q

Where are microspores and megaspores produced in gymnosperms?

A

Within sporangia on sporophylls.

108
Q

What are the male strobili in gymnosperms called?

A

Microsporangiate or male strobili.

109
Q

What does a pollen grain develop from in gymnosperms?

A

Microspores.

110
Q

What does a pollen grain develop from in gymnosperms?

A

Microspores.

111
Q

What are the female strobili in gymnosperms called?

A

Macrosporangiate or female strobili.

112
Q

How do male and female cones differ in Cycas compared to Pinus?

A

In Cycas, male cones and megasporophylls are borne on different trees; in Pinus, they may be on the same tree.

113
Q

From where is the megaspore mother cell derived?

A

From a cell of the nucellus.

114
Q

What is the structure that protects the nucellus and contains eggs?

A

The ovule.

115
Q

How many megaspores are formed from the megaspore mother cell?

A

Four

116
Q

What develops from one of the megaspores within the megasporangium?

A

A multicellular female gametophyte.

117
Q

What does the multicellular female gametophyte bear?

A

Two or more archegonia (female sex organs).

118
Q

In gymnosperms, do male and female gametophytes have independent free-living existence?

A

No, they remain within the sporangia retained on the sporophytes.

119
Q

How are pollen grains transported to ovules in gymnosperms?

A

Carried by air currents.

120
Q

What happens after pollen grains contact the ovules?

A

The pollen tube grows towards the archegonia, discharging male gametes near the archegonia.

121
Q

What develops following fertilisation in gymnosperms?

A

The zygote develops into an embryo, and the ovules develop into seeds.

122
Q

How are ovules and pollen grains developed in angiosperms?

A

In specialized structures called flowers.

123
Q

How are ovules and pollen grains developed in angiosperms?

A

In specialized structures called flowers.

124
Q

What encloses the seeds in angiosperms?

A

Fruits.

125
Q

What is the range of sizes in angiosperms?

A

From the smallest Wolffia to tall trees like Eucalyptus

126
Q

What commercial products do angiosperms provide?

A

Food, fodder, fuel, medicines, and other commercially important products

127
Q

Into what two classes are angiosperms divided?

A

Dicotyledons and monocotyledons.

128
Q

What characterizes dicotyledons?

A

Seeds with two cotyledons, reticulate venation in leaves, and tetramerous or pentamerous flowers

129
Q

What characterizes monocotyledons?

A

Seeds with a single cotyledon, parallel venation in leaves, and trimerous flowers.

130
Q

What is the male sex organ in a flower?

A

The stamen.

131
Q

What does each stamen consist of?

A

A slender filament with an anther at the tip

132
Q

How are pollen grains formed in angiosperms?

A

Pollen mother cells in the anther divide by meiosis to produce microspores, which mature into pollen grains.

133
Q

What is the female sex organ in a flower called?

A

The pistil.

134
Q

What are the components of a pistil?

A

A swollen ovary, a long slender style, and a stigma

135
Q

What occurs inside the ovary of a pistil?

A

Ovules are present, each with a megaspore mother cell that undergoes meiosis to form megaspores

136
Q

How many megaspores are formed from the megaspore mother cell, and what happens to them?

A

Four megaspores are formed; three degenerate, and one divides to form the embryo sac.

137
Q

What does each embryo sac contain?

A

A three-celled egg apparatus (one egg cell and two synergids), three antipodal cells, and two polar nuclei.

138
Q

What happens to the polar nuclei in the embryo sac?

A

They fuse to produce a diploid secondary nucleus

139
Q

What is pollination?

A

The transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma of a pistil.

140
Q

What happens after pollen grains germinate on the stigma?

A

Pollen tubes grow through the stigma and style to reach the ovule

141
Q

What occurs during double fertilisation in angiosperms?

A

One male gamete fuses with the egg cell (syngamy) to form a zygote, and another male gamete fuses with the secondary nucleus to form the triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN).

142
Q

What is the outcome of double fertilisation?

A

The zygote develops into an embryo, and the PEN develops into endosperm to nourish the embryo.

143
Q

What happens to the synergids and antipodals after fertilisation?

A

They degenerate.

144
Q

What do ovules and ovaries develop into after fertilisation?

A

Ovules develop into seeds, and ovaries develop into fruit.

145
Q

In plants, what types of cells can divide by mitosis?

A

Both haploid and diploid cells

146
Q

What does the haploid plant body produce by mitosis?

A

Gametes.

147
Q

What is the plant body called that represents the haploid phase?

A

Gametophyte

148
Q

What is the plant body called that represents the haploid phase?

A

Gametophyte.

149
Q

What does the diploid zygote develop into after fertilization?

A

A diploid sporophytic plant body

150
Q

How are haploid spores produced in the plant life cycle?

A

By meiosis in the diploid sporophytic plant body.

151
Q

What happens to haploid spores after they are produced?

A

They divide by mitosis to form a haploid plant body again.

152
Q

What is the term for the alternation of generations in the plant life cycle?

A

Alternation of generations between gamete-producing haploid gametophyte and spore-producing diploid sporophyte.

153
Q

What characterizes the haplontic life cycle?

A

The sporophytic generation is represented only by the one-celled zygote, with no free-living sporophytes. The dominant phase is the free-living gametophyte.

154
Q

Which plants exhibit a haplontic life cycle?

A

Many algae such as Volvox, Spirogyra, and some species of Chlamydomonas.

155
Q

What characterizes the diplontic life cycle?

A

The diploid sporophyte is the dominant, photosynthetic, independent phase, and the gametophytic phase is represented by a single to few-celled haploid gametophyte.

156
Q

Which alga represents the diplontic life cycle?

A

Fucus sp.

157
Q

What type of life cycle do seed-bearing plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms) follow?

A

Diplontic life cycle with some variations.

158
Q

What type of life cycle do bryophytes and pteridophytes exhibit?

A

Haplo-diplontic.

159
Q

In bryophytes, what represents the dominant phase in the haplo-diplontic life cycle?

A

A haploid gametophyte that is independent, photosynthetic, and either thalloid or erect.

160
Q

In pteridophytes, what represents the dominant phase in the haplo-diplontic life cycle?

A

A diploid sporophyte that is independent, photosynthetic, and vascular.

161
Q

What is the term for the life cycle in which both haploid and diploid phases are multicellular?

A

Haplo-diplontic life cycle.

162
Q

Which algae exhibit a haplo-diplontic life cycle?

A

Ectocarpus, Polysiphonia, and kelps.

163
Q

What type of life cycle does the alga Fucus have?

A

Diplontic.

Diversity In Living World (3 decks)

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