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Diversity In Living World > Biological Classification > Flashcards

Biological Classification Flashcards

1
Q

Who was the earliest to attempt a more scientific basis for classification?

A

Aristotle

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2
Q

What morphological characters did Aristotle use to classify plants?

A

Trees, shrubs, and herbs

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3
Q

How did Aristotle classify animals?

A

Into those with red blood and those without.

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4
Q

What classification system was developed during Linnaeus’ time?

A

The Two Kingdom system with Plantae and Animalia kingdoms.

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5
Q

What limitations did the Two Kingdom system have?

A

It did not distinguish between
1. eukaryotes and prokaryotes
2. unicellular and multicellular organisms
3. photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organisms

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6
Q

What was a major drawback of the Two Kingdom classification?

A

A large number of organisms did not fit into either category.

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7
Q

Besides gross morphology, what other characteristics were felt necessary for classification?

A

Cell structure,
nature of wall,
mode of nutrition,
habitat,
methods of reproduction, evolutionary relationships.

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8
Q

How has the classification of living organisms changed over time?

A

Classification systems have undergone several changes, with different understandings of which groups/organisms fit under the plant and animal kingdoms and the number and nature of other kingdoms.

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9
Q

Have the plant and animal kingdoms remained constant in classification systems?

A

Yes, they have been a constant under all different systems.

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10
Q

Monera is characterized by a ____ cell type and a ____ cell wall.

A

Prokaryotic,Eukaryotic

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11
Q

Protista is characterized by a ____ cell type and a cell wall ____ in some cases.

A

Eukaryotic,Present

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12
Q

Fungi is characterized by a cell type that is ____ and a cell wall made of ____.

A

Eukaryotic,chitin

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13
Q

Plantae is characterized by a ____ cell type and a cell wall made of ____.

A

Eukaryotic,cellulose

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14
Q

Animalia is characterized by a ____ cell type and a ____ cell wall.

A

Eukaryotic,Absent

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15
Q

Fungi exhibit ____ nutrition, being both ____ and ____.

A

Heterotrophic,Saprophytic,Parasitic

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16
Q

Plantae is ____ and primarily ____ in nature.

A

Autotrophic,Photosynthetic

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17
Q

Animalia is ____ in nature, being primarily ____.

A

Heterotrophic,Holozoic

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18
Q

Fungi Cell Walls

A

Fungi have a cellulosic cell wall.

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19
Q

Kingdom Monera

A

All prokaryotic organisms were grouped under Kingdom Monera.

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20
Q

Kingdom Protista

A

Unicellular eukaryotic organisms were placed in Kingdom Protista.

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21
Q

Protista Classification

A

Kingdom Protista includes Chlamydomonas and Chlorella (with cell walls) and Paramoecium and Amoeba (without cell walls).

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22
Q

Classification Changes

A

Changes in classification occurred due to evolving criteria.

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23
Q

Future Classification:

A

Future changes in classification will depend on improved understanding of characteristics and evolutionary relationships.

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24
Q

Classification System

A

Modern classification reflects
1. morphological,
2. physiological,
3. reproductive similarities
4. evolutionary relationships.

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25
Q

Virus, viroids, prions and lichens are not mentioned in which Classification

A

Five kingdom

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26
Q

Kingdom Monera

A

Bacteria are the sole members of Kingdom Monera

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27
Q

Abundance of Bacteria

A

Bacteria are the most abundant microorganisms.

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28
Q

Habitat of Bacteria

A

Bacteria occur almost everywhere, including extreme habitats

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29
Q

Bacteria in Soil:

A

Hundreds of bacteria are present in a handful of soil.

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30
Q

Parasitic Bacteria:

A

Many bacteria live as parasites on or in other organisms.

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31
Q

Bacterial Shapes

A

Bacteria are grouped based on shape:
1.Coccus: Spherical shape (pl.: cocci)
2. Bacillus: Rod-shaped (pl.: bacilli)
3. Vibrium: Comma-shaped (pl.: vibrio)
4. Spirillum: Spiral shape (pl.: spirilla)

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32
Q

Bacterial Structure vs. Behavior:

A

Bacteria have a simple structure but complex behavior.

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33
Q

Metabolic Diversity in bacteria

A

Bacteria exhibit extensive metabolic diversity compared to many organisms.

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34
Q

Autotrophic Bacteria

A

Some bacteria are autotrophic, synthesizing their own food from inorganic substrates.

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35
Q

Types of Autotrophic Bacteria

A

Autotrophic bacteria can be photosynthetic or chemosynthetic

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36
Q

Heterotrophic Bacteria

A

The majority of bacteria are heterotrophs, relying on other organisms or dead organic matter for food.

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37
Q

Archaebacteria Habitats

A

Archaebacteria live in harsh habitats like extreme salty areas, hot springs, and marshy areas.

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38
Q

Types of Archaebacteria:

A
  1. Halophiles: Live in extreme salty areas.
  2. Thermoacidophiles: Live in hot springs.
  3. Methanogens: Live in marshy areas and in the guts of ruminant animals.
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39
Q

Archaebacteria Cell Wall:

A

They have a different cell wall structure compared to other bacteria.

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40
Q

Survival of archaebacteria in Extreme Conditions:

A

The unique cell wall structure helps archaebacteria survive in extreme conditions.

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41
Q

Methanogens and Methane Production

A

Methanogens in the gut of ruminants like cows and buffaloes produce methane (biogas) from their dung.

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42
Q

Eubacteria Characteristics

A

Eubacteria, or ‘true bacteria,’ have a rigid cell wall and may have a flagellum if motile.

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43
Q

Cyanobacteria

A

Also known as blue-green algae, cyanobacteria are photosynthetic autotrophs with chlorophyll similar to green plants.

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44
Q

Forms of Cyanobacteria

A

They can be unicellular, colonial, or filamentous, and can live in freshwater, marine, or terrestrial environments.

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45
Q

Cyanobacterial Colonies

A

Their colonies are generally surrounded by a gelatinous sheath and can form blooms in polluted waters.

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46
Q

Nitrogen Fixation in cyanobacteria

A

Some cyanobacteria, like Nostoc and Anabaena, can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialized cells called heterocysts.

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47
Q

Chemosynthetic Bacteria

A

These bacteria oxidize inorganic substances (e.g., nitrates, nitrites, ammonia) to produce ATP and play a role in nutrient recycling.

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48
Q

Heterotrophic Bacteria

A

Most abundant and important decomposers; they are involved in processes like curd formation, antibiotic production, and nitrogen fixation in legumes.

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49
Q

Bacterial Pathogens:

A

Some bacteria cause diseases such as cholera, typhoid, tetanus, and citrus canker.

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50
Q

Bacterial Reproduction:

A

Bacteria primarily reproduce by fission; they can also form spores under unfavorable conditions and transfer DNA in a primitive sexual reproduction process.

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51
Q

Mycoplasma

A

These bacteria lack a cell wall, are the smallest known living cells, can survive without oxygen, and many are pathogenic in animals and plants.

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52
Q

All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under which kingdom?

A

Protista

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53
Q

Why are the boundaries of the kingdom Protista not well defined?

A

What may be ‘a photosynthetic protistan’ to one biologist may be ‘a plant’ to another.

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54
Q

Which organisms are included under Protista in this book?

A

Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds, and Protozoans.

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55
Q

Where are members of Protista primarily found?

A

Aquatic environments

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56
Q

How does the kingdom Protista form a link with other kingdoms?

A

It forms a link with plants, animals, and fungi.

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57
Q

What features do protistan cells have?

A

A well-defined nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

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58
Q

What structures might some protists have for movement?

A

Flagella or cilia

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59
Q

How do protists reproduce?

A

Asexually and sexually by a process involving cell fusion and zygote formation.

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60
Q

What groups are included in Crisophytes?

A

Diatoms and golden algae (desmids)

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61
Q

Where are Crisophytes found?

A

In fresh water as well as in marine environments.

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62
Q

How do Crisophytes move in water?

A

They are microscopic and float passively in water currents (plankton).

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63
Q

What is the primary mode of nutrition for most Crisophytes?

A

Photosynthetic

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64
Q

How are the cell walls of diatoms structured?

A

They form two thin overlapping shells that fit together like a soap box.

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65
Q

What material are diatom cell walls embedded with?

A

Silica

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66
Q

Why are diatom cell walls described as indestructible?

A

Because they are embedded with silica

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67
Q

What is ‘diatomaceous earth’?

A

The accumulation of diatom cell wall deposits over billions of years.

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68
Q

What are some uses of diatomaceous earth?

A

Polishing, filtration of oils and syrups.

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69
Q

Q: What role do diatoms play in the oceans?

A

They are the chief ‘producers’.

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70
Q

Where are dinoflagellates mostly found?

A

Marine environments.

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71
Q

What type of nutrition do dinoflagellates primarily have?

A

Photosynthetic

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72
Q

What determines the color of dinoflagellates?

A

The main pigments present in their cells, can be yellow, green, brown and blue or red

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73
Q

What is the composition of the dinoflagellate cell wall?

A

Stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface.

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74
Q

How many flagella do most dinoflagellates have, and where are they located?

A

Two flagella; one lies longitudinally and the other transversely in a furrow between the wall plates.

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75
Q

What phenomenon can red dinoflagellates cause?

A

Red tides.

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76
Q

What is an example of a red dinoflagellate that can cause red tides?

A

Gonyaulax

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77
Q

What impact can the rapid multiplication of red dinoflagellates have on marine life?

A

The toxins they release may kill other marine animals, such as fishes.

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78
Q

Where are the majority of Euglenoids found?

A

In stagnant fresh water.

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79
Q

What replaces the cell wall in Euglenoids?

A

A protein-rich layer called pellicle.

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80
Q

What is the function of the pellicle in Euglenoids?

A

It makes their body flexible

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81
Q

How many flagella do Euglenoids have, and what are their lengths?

A

Two flagella; one short and one long.

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82
Q

How do Euglenoids obtain nutrients in the presence of sunlight?

A

They are photosynthetic.

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83
Q

What happens to Euglenoids when they are deprived of sunlight?

A

They behave like heterotrophs by preying on other smaller organisms.

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84
Q

What is interesting about the pigments of Euglenoids compared to higher plants?

A

The pigments are identical to those present in higher plants.

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85
Q

Provide an example of a Euglenoid.

A

Euglena

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86
Q

What type of nutrition do slime moulds exhibit?

A

Saprophytic

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87
Q

How do slime moulds move and feed?

A

They move along decaying twigs and leaves, engulfing organic material.

88
Q

What forms when slime moulds aggregate under suitable conditions?

A

A plasmodium.

89
Q

How large can a plasmodium of slime moulds grow?

A

It may grow and spread over several feet.

90
Q

What happens to the plasmodium during unfavourable conditions?

A

It differentiates and forms fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips.

91
Q

What is notable about the spores of slime moulds?

A

They possess true walls, are extremely resistant, and can survive for many years under adverse conditions.

92
Q

How are the spores of slime moulds dispersed?

A

By air currents.

93
Q

What is the nutritional mode of protozoans?

A

Heterotrophs

94
Q

What are the four major groups of protozoans?

A

Amoeboid protozoans, Flagellated protozoans, Ciliated protozoans, Sporozoans.

95
Q

Where do amoeboid protozoans live?

A

In fresh water, sea water, or moist soil.

96
Q

How do amoeboid protozoans move and capture prey?

A

By putting out pseudopodia (false feet).

97
Q

What is an example of an amoeboid protozoan that is a parasite?

A

Entamoeba (constipation)

98
Q

What distinguishes flagellated protozoans?

A

They have flagella.

99
Q

What disease is caused by parasitic flagellated protozoans?

A

Sleeping sickness.

100
Q

Provide an example of a flagellated protozoan.

A

Trypanosoma

101
Q

What characterizes ciliated protozoans?

A

They are aquatic and move actively due to the presence of thousands of cilia.

102
Q

How do ciliated protozoans obtain food?

A

The coordinated movement of cilia steers water laden with food into the gullet.

103
Q

Provide an example of a ciliated protozoan.

A

Paramoecium

104
Q

What is a defining feature of sporozoans?

A

They have an infectious spore-like stage in their life cycle.

105
Q

Which sporozoan is known for causing malaria?

A

Plasmodium

106
Q

What kingdom do fungi belong to?

A

The kingdom of heterotrophic organisms.

107
Q

Where can fungi commonly be found?

A

On moist bread, rotten fruits, and other decaying matter.

108
Q

What are some examples of fungi used in food production?

A

Yeast used for making bread and beer.

109
Q

What fungal disease affects wheat?

A

Wheat rust caused by Puccinia.

110
Q

Which fungi are known sources of antibiotics?

A

Penicillium

111
Q

Where do fungi typically grow?

A

In warm and humid places.

112
Q

Why do we keep food in the refrigerator in relation to fungi?

A

To prevent food from going bad due to bacterial or fungal infections.

113
Q

What are the long, slender thread-like structures of fungi called?

A

Hyphae

114
Q

What is the network of hyphae known as?

A

Mycelium

115
Q

What are coenocytic hyphae?

A

Hyphae that are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm.

116
Q

What are the cell walls of fungi composed of?

A

Chitin and polysaccharides.

117
Q

What term is used for fungi that absorb soluble organic matter from dead

A

Saprophytes

118
Q

What are fungi that depend on living plants and animals called?

A

Parasites

119
Q

What term describes fungi living in association with algae or plant roots?

A

Symbionts

120
Q

What are the types of asexual reproduction in fungi?

A

Fragmentation, fission, budding, and spores such as conidia, sporangiospores, and zoospores.

121
Q

What are the types of sexual reproduction spores in fungi?

A

Oospores, ascospores, and basidiospores.

122
Q

Various spores are produced in distinct structures called

A

Fruiting bodies

123
Q

What are the three steps in sexual reproduction of fungi?

A

(i) Plasmogamy (fusion of protoplasms),
(ii) Karyogamy (fusion of nuclei),
(iii) Meiosis resulting in haploid spores.

124
Q

What is a dikaryon in fungi?

A

A condition where two nuclei per cell are present during an intervening phase called dikaryophase.

125
Q

How do fungi form fruiting bodies and produce spores?

A

Through reduction division that leads to the formation of haploid spores.

126
Q

What characteristics are used to classify fungi into various classes?

A

The morphology of the mycelium,
mode of spore formation,
fruiting bodies.

127
Q

White spot on mustard leaves are due to which parasitic fungus

A

Albugo

128
Q

Fungi are cosmopolitan because

A

They occur in air, water, soil and on animals and plants

129
Q

An example of unicellular fungi

A

Yeast

130
Q

Fungi living as symbionts in association with roots of higher plants are called

A

Mycorrhiza

131
Q

Fusion of gametes does not immediately result in diploid cells in which classes of fungi

A

Ascomycetes and basidiomycetes

132
Q

Where are members of phycomycetes typically found?

A

In aquatic habitats, on decaying wood, or as obligate parasites on plants.

133
Q

What type of mycelium do phycomycetes have?

A

Aseptate and coenocytic.

134
Q

How does asexual reproduction occur in phycomycetes?

A

By zoospores (motile) or aplanospores (non-motile), which are produced endogenously in a sporangium.

135
Q

How is a zygospore formed in phycomycetes?

A

By the fusion of two gametes.

136
Q

What types of gametes can form a zygospore in phycomycetes?

A

Isogamous (similar in morphology), anisogamous or oogamous (dissimilar)

137
Q

Provide an example of a phycomycete.

A

Mucor, Rhizopus, and Albugo.

138
Q

What is Rhizopus commonly known as?

A

Bread mould.

139
Q

What is Albugo known for?

A

Being a parasitic fungus on mustard.

140
Q

What are ascomycetes commonly known as?

A

Sac-fungi.

141
Q

Are ascomycetes generally multicellular or unicellular?

A

Mostly multicellular (e.g., Penicillium) or rarely unicellular (e.g., yeast, Saccharomyces).

142
Q

What types of environments can ascomycetes thrive in?

A

They can be saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic, or coprophilous (growing on dung).

143
Q

What is the structure of the mycelium in ascomycetes?

A

The mycelium is branched and septate.

144
Q

How are asexual spores called conidia produced in ascomycetes?

A

They are produced exogenously on conidiophores.

145
Q

What do conidia produce upon germination?

A

They produce mycelium.

146
Q

What are sexual spores in ascomycetes called?

A

Ascospores

147
Q

Where are ascospores produced in ascomycetes?

A

Endogenously in sac-like asci (singular: ascus).

148
Q

What are the different types of fruiting bodies in ascomycetes called?

A

Ascocarps

149
Q

Provide examples of ascomycetes

A

Aspergillus, Claviceps, Neurospora

150
Q

What is Neurospora used for?

A

Extensive biochemical and genetic work

151
Q

What are some edible and considered delicacies among ascomycetes?

A

Morels and truffles.

152
Q

What are some common forms of basidiomycetes?

A

Mushrooms, bracket fungi, and puffballs.

153
Q

Where do basidiomycetes typically grow?

A

In soil, on logs, tree stumps, and in living plant bodies as parasites.

154
Q

What is the structure of the mycelium in basidiomycetes?

A

The mycelium is branched and septate.

155
Q

Are asexual spores commonly found in basidiomycetes?

A

No, asexual spores are generally not found.

156
Q

How does vegetative reproduction occur in basidiomycetes?

A

By fragmentation, common in basidiomycetes

157
Q

How is plasmogamy achieved in basidiomycetes?

A

By the fusion of two vegetative or somatic cells of different strains or genotypes.

158
Q

What structure results from plasmogamy in basidiomycetes?

A

A dikaryotic structure which ultimately give rise to basidium

159
Q

What happens in the basidium of basidiomycetes?

A

Karyogamy and meiosis occur, producing four basidiospores.

160
Q

How are basidiospores produced in basidiomycetes?

A

Exogenously on the basidium (pl.: basidia).

161
Q

What are the fruiting bodies of basidiomycetes called?

A

Basidiocarps

162
Q

Provide examples of basidiomycetes

A

Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), and Puccinia (rust fungus).

163
Q

Why are deuteromycetes commonly known as “imperfect fungi”?

A

Because only their asexual or vegetative phases are known.

164
Q

What happens when the sexual forms of deuteromycetes are discovered?

A

They are often moved to the classes to which they rightly belong, such as ascomycetes or basidiomycetes.

165
Q

What is a possible reason for the confusion between asexual and sexual stages in deuteromycetes?

A

The asexual and vegetative stages might have been given one name and placed under deuteromycetes, while the sexual stage was given another name and placed under a different class.

166
Q

How do deuteromycetes reproduce

A

By asexual spores known as conidia.

167
Q

What is the structure of the mycelium in deuteromycetes?

A

It is septate and branched.

168
Q

What roles do deuteromycetes play in their environments?

A

They can be saprophytes, parasites, or decomposers of litter, aiding in mineral cycling.

169
Q

Provide examples of deuteromycetes.

A

Alternaria, Colletotrichum, and Trichoderma.

170
Q

Alternaria cause

A

Early blight of potato

171
Q

Colletotricum cause

A

Red rot disease of sugarcane

172
Q

Trichoderma cause

A

Green mould rot of onion

173
Q

What does Kingdom Plantae include?

A

All eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms commonly called plants.

174
Q

Are there any heterotrophic members in Kingdom Plantae? Give examples.

A

Yes, some members are partially heterotrophic, such as insectivorous plants (e.g., Bladderwort, Venus fly trap) and parasites (e.g., Cuscuta).

175
Q

What is the main component of the cell wall in plant cells?

A

Cellulose.

176
Q

What cell structure is prominent in plant cells?

A

Chloroplasts.

177
Q

What are the main groups included in Kingdom Plantae?

A

Algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms.

178
Q

What are the two distinct phases in the life cycle of plants?

A

The diploid sporophytic phase and the haploid gametophytic phase.

179
Q

What is the phenomenon where the diploid and haploid phases alternate in plants?

A

Alternation of generation.

180
Q

Do the lengths of the haploid and diploid phases vary among plant groups?

A

Yes, they vary, and the phases can be either free-living or dependent on others.

181
Q

What type of organisms characterize the Animal Kingdom?

A

Heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are multicellular and lack cell walls.

182
Q

How do animals depend on plants

A

Animals depend directly or indirectly on plants for food.

183
Q

How do animals digest their food?

A

They digest food in an internal cavity.

184
Q

What do animals store their food reserves as?

A

Glycogen or fat.

185
Q

What is the mode of nutrition in animals?

A

Holozoic – by ingestion of food.

186
Q

How do animals grow?

A

They follow a definite growth pattern and grow into adults with a definite shape and size.

187
Q

What characteristics are seen in higher forms of animals?

A

Elaborate sensory and neuromotor mechanisms.

188
Q

What is a common capability of most animals?

A

Locomotion.

189
Q

How does sexual reproduction occur in animals?

A

By copulation of male and female followed by embryological development

190
Q

What does the five kingdom classification of Whittaker not mention?

A

Lichens and some acellular organisms like viruses, viroids, and prions

191
Q

What are viruses characterized by?

A

An inert crystalline structure outside the living cell.

192
Q

Why did viruses not find a place in classification according to Whittaker’s system?

A

They are not considered truly ‘living’ as they lack a cell structure.

193
Q

What effects can viruses have on humans, as commonly experienced?

A

Common cold or ‘flu’.

194
Q

What happens when viruses infect a cell?

A

They take over the machinery of the host cell to replicate themselves, often killing the host.

195
Q

What does the term “virus” mean?

A

Venom or poisonous fluid.

196
Q

Who first recognized certain microbes as the causal organism of mosaic disease in tobacco, and were found to be smaller than bacteria?

A

Dmitri Ivanowsky (1892).

197
Q

How did M.W. Beijerinek in 1898 contribute to the understanding of viruses?

A

He demonstrated that the extract of infected tobacco plants could cause infection in healthy plants and named the new pathogen “virus.”

198
Q

What did Beijerinek called the infectious living fluid?

A

Contagium vivum fluidum

199
Q

What did W.M. Stanley discover about viruses in 1935?

A

He showed that viruses could be crystallized, and these crystals consist largely of proteins.

200
Q

What is the nature of viruses outside their specific host cell?

A

They are inert and do not exhibit life processes outside their host. Viruses are obligate parasites

201
Q

What are the two types of genetic material viruses can contain?

A

RNA or DNA (but not both).

202
Q

What distinguishes viruses that infect plants from those that infect animals in terms of genetic material?

A

•Plant viruses generally have single-stranded RNA,
•animal viruses can have single or double-stranded RNA
or double-stranded DNA.

203
Q

What are bacteriophages?

A

Viruses that infect bacteria, usually containing double-stranded DNA.

204
Q

What is the role of the protein coat (capsid) in a virus?

A

It protects the nucleic acid and is made of subunits called capsomeres, which are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms.

205
Q

What is the role of the protein coat (capsid) in a virus?

A

It protects the nucleic acid and is made of subunits called capsomeres, which are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms.

206
Q

Name some diseases caused by viruses.

A

Mumps, smallpox, herpes, influenza, and AIDS.

207
Q

What are some symptoms of viral infections in plants?

A

Mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing, and stunted growth.

208
Q

Who discovered viroids and in what year?

A

T.O. Diener in 1971.

209
Q

What is a viroid and how does it differ from viruses?

A

A viroid is a free RNA that lacks a protein coat, unlike viruses which have a protein coat.

210
Q

What disease is caused by viroids?

A

Potato spindle tuber disease

211
Q

What are prions and how do they differ from viruses?

A

Prions are agents consisting of abnormally folded proteins and are similar in size to viruses but lack nucleic acids.

212
Q

What are the notable diseases caused by prions?

A

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also known as mad cow disease, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans.

213
Q

What are lichens and what types of organisms are involved?

A

Lichens are symbiotic associations between algae (phycobiont) and fungi (mycobiont).

214
Q

How do algae and fungi benefit each other in lichens?

A

Algae prepare food for fungi, while fungi provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and water for algae.

215
Q

Why are lichens considered good pollution indicators?

A

They do not grow in polluted areas. they are sensitive to SO2 and die at high SO2 levels

Diversity In Living World (3 decks)

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