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biology - aerobic respirationn > plant cloning > Flashcards

plant cloning Flashcards

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1
Q

how do you produce a clown from cutting

A

1 - use a scaple or sharp secateurs to take a cutting,bertween 5cm to 10 cm long from the end of stem of your parent plant.
2- remove the leaves from the lower end of your cutting ,leaving just one at the tip.
3- dip the lower end of the cutting in the rooting powder, which contains hormones that induce root formation.
4-then plant your cutting in a pot containing a suitable growth medium (well drained compost).
5- provide your cutting with warm and moist conditions u can do this by covering the entire pot with plastic bag or by putting the cutting in a propagator.(piece of kit that provides these conditions ).
6-

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2
Q

what are the different types of vegetative propagation?

A

Rhizomes,stolons,bulb,tubers,suckers

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3
Q

vegetative propagation - suckers - description + example

A

they are similar to rhizomes howver the main difference is that they grow above the ground ,on the surface of the soil.new shoots and roots can either develop ffrom nodes or form at the end of stolon. eg strawberries.

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4
Q

vegetative propagation:rhizomes

A

rhizomes are stem structures that grow horizontally underground away from the parent plant. they have ,nodes, from which new shoots and roots develop.
example - bamboo

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5
Q

tubers- vegetative propagation

A

tubers are large underground plant structures that act as a food store for the plant .the are covered in ‘eyes’. each eye is able to sprout and form a new plant. eg : potatoes

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6
Q

suckers- vegetative propagation

A

suckers are shoots that grow from sucker buds(undeveloped shoots )present on the shallow roots of parent plant.eg: elm trees

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7
Q

bulbs - vegetative propagation

A

bulbs are also underground food stores used by some plants. new bulbs are able to develop from original bulb and form new individual plants.eg: onions

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8
Q

what is vegetative propagation : /

A

is the production of plant clones from non reproductive tissues eg: roots , leaves and stem

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9
Q

what are the two types of plant cloning ?

A

vegetative propagation and artificial cloning

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10
Q

what is a horticulturists ?

A

its the plant growers that use other ‘natural’methods of vegetative propagation to produce clones. these methods include cutting , grafting(joining the shoot of one plant to the growing stem and root of another plant),and layering (bending a stem of a growing plant downwards so it enters the soil and grows into a new plant. )

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11
Q

what’s cloning ?

A

is the process of producing genetically identical cells of an organisms from the cells of a existing organism.

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12
Q

what are the ways plants can be artificially cloned ?

A

using tissue culture

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13
Q

how is tissue culture done ?

A

1- cells are taken from the original plant that’s going to be cloned.
- cells from the stem and root tips are used because they are the meristem cells.
2- the cells are then sterialised to kill any microorganism - bacteria and fungi compete for nutrients with the plant cells, which decreases their growth rate.

3-the cells are placed on a culture medium containing plant nutrients.
4-when the cells have decided and grown into a small plant they are taken out of the medium and planted into the soil - they’ll develop into plants that are genetically identical to the original plant.

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14
Q

arguments against artificial cloning

A
  • undesirable genetic characterstics are always passed on to the clones.
  • cloned plant population have no genetic variability , so a single disease could kill them all.
  • production cost of tissue culture is very high due to high energy use and the training of skilled workers, so its unsuitable for small scale production.
  • contamination by microorganisms during tissue culture can be disastrous and result in complete loss of plants being cultured.
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15
Q

argumets for artificial cloning

A
  • produces lots of plants quickly and allows plants to reproduce in any season because the enviorment is controlled.
  • less space id required by tissue culture than would be required to grow the same number of plants by conventional growing methods.
  • desired characterstics are always passed on that usually doesn’t happen when plants reproduce sexually.
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16
Q

what are the two types of animal cloning?

A

natural and artificial

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17
Q

natural animal cloning

A

During sexual reproduction, once an egg has been fertilised, its possible for it to split during the very early stages of development and develop into multiple embryos with the same genetic information. the embryo develops as normal to produce offspring thaty are all genetically identical - they are clones. for eg- identical twins are natural clones.

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18
Q

what are the different types of artificial animal cloning ? or how are clones produced artificially ?

A
  • somatic cell nuclear transfer

- artificial embryo twinning

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19
Q

artificial embryo twinning

A
  • an egg is extracted from a female cow and fertilised in a petri dish.
  • the fertilised egg is left to divide at least once , forming an embryo in virto (outside a living organism).
  • next, the individual cells from the embryo are separated and each is put into a separate petri dish. each cell divides and develops normally,so an embryo forms in each petri dish.
  • the embryos are then implanted into female cows , which act as surrogate mother.
  • the embryos continue to develop inside their surrogate cows, and develop and eventually offspring are born,they are all identical to each other.
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20
Q

somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)

A
  • somatic cell taken from sheep a . the nucleus is extracted and kept.
    -An oocyte (immature egg cell) is taken from sheep b , its nucleus is removed to form an enuclated oocyte.
    the nucleas from sheep a is then inserted int enucleated oocyte from sheep b, sheep b now contains the genetc information from sheep A
  • the nucles and enucleated oocyte are fused together and stimulated to divide , this produces an embryo.
  • then the embryo is implanted into a surrogate mother and eventually a lamb is borm that’s a clone of sheep A.
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21
Q

What are the uses of animal cloning?

A
  • scientis use clones for research purposes
  • clones can be used to save endangered animals from extinction by cloning new individuals.
  • cloning can be also used in agriculture so farmers can increase the number of animals with desirable characteristics to breed from.
  • animals that have been geneticially modified produce useful substance that they wouldn’t usually produce.
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22
Q

what are the arguments for animal cloning?

A
  • desirable genetic characterstics are always passed on.
  • infertile animals can be reproduced.
  • help preserve biodiversity by increasing the population of endangered population.
  • animals can be cloned anytime .
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23
Q

what are the arguments against animal cloning?

A
  • undesirable genetic characterstics are always passed on to clones .
  • cloned organisms have no genetic variability.
  • production cost is expensive and the process is very time consuming.
  • some evidence supports that clones may not live for as long as natural offspring.
  • using cloned individuals as a source of stem cells is controversial.
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24
Q

what is biotechnology?

A

it is the use of living organism in the industry to produce food and drugs.

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25
Q

what are the living organisms used for bio technology mostly microgranisms?/

A
  • their ideal conditions can be easily created.
  • microrganisms will usually grow ideally as long as they have got an accurate ph, temrature , nutrients
  • because of their short life cycle , they grow rapidly under right conditions
  • they can grow in a range of inexpensive material- makes them economical to use.
  • can be grown at any time of the year.
26
Q

what are the different processes microorganism’s can be used for ?

A

brewing (making beer),penicillin and insulin production,yeast production,cheese making,baking,bioremedication

27
Q

brewing -what’s the role of microorganism

A

to make beer ,yeast is added to a type of grain (eg barley)and other ingrediants. the yeast respires anaerobically using glucose from the grain and produces ethanol and co2. (this process of anaerobic respiration is also known as fermentation).

28
Q

baking - what’s the role of microorganism ?

A

yeast is also an organism that makes a bread rise. the co2 produced by fermentation of sugars in the dough makes sure it doesn’t stayflat. many flat breads, like tortillas are made without yeast.

29
Q

cheese making -what’s the role of microorganism ?

A

cheese making involves rennet(conatins enzyme chymosin which clots the milk),lactic acid bacteria (these bacteria convert lactose in milk to lactic acid ) which makes it turn sour and eads to it solidifying.
the production of blue cheese also involves the addition of fungi to make characterstic blue veins.

30
Q

yogurt production - what’s the role of microorganism ?

A

it involves use of lactic acid nacteria to clot the milk and cause it to thicken. this creates basic yougurt product and then any flavours and colours are added.

31
Q

pencillin production -what’s the role of microorganism ?

A

in times of stress , fungi from the pencillium genus produce an antibiotic, pencillin, to stop bacteria from growing and competing for resources.i

32
Q

insulin production-what’s the role of microorganism ?

A

its made by genetically modified bacteria , which have had the egene for human insulin production insterted into their dna. these bacteria are grown in industry fermenteron a massive scale and insulin produced is coolected and purified.

33
Q

bioremedication -what’s the role of microorganism ?

A
  • its a process of using organisms to remove pollutantslike pesticides , from contaminated sites.
34
Q

what are the advantages of using microrganisms in food production ?

A

microgranisms that are used to produce single celled proeten can be grown using different organic substrates - including waste material.

  • microrganisms can be grown quickly easily and cheaply. and less land is required for their production.
  • can be cultured if uu hav ethe right equipment and right growth requirements and correct food source.
  • single celled protein is often considered healthier alternative to animal protein
35
Q

what are the disadvantages of using microorganisms in food production?

A
  • a lot of effort is needed to maintain the right conditions that are needed to grow the desired organisms also , we need to make sure that the food doesn’t get contaminated by unwanted bacteria -which could be dangerous to humans or spoil the food.
  • people may not like the idea of eating food that has been growing on waste material.
  • single cell protein doesn’t have the same texture or flavour as rea meat.
  • if single celled protein is consumed in high quantities, health propblems could be caused due to high levels of uric acid released when amino acid is broken down.
36
Q

what are the two types of fermentation /?

A

bacth and continuous

37
Q

whats batch fermentation ?

A

this is where microrganisms are grown individually in single batches in a fermentation vessel when one culture ends its removed and then a different batch of microrganisms is grown in the vessel. - this is known as closed culture.

38
Q

whats continuous feremntaion /?

A

this is where microrganisms are grown continually in a fermentation vessel without stopping . nutrients are put it and waste products are taken out at a constant rate.

39
Q

whats a culture//?

A

a culture is a population of one type of microorganism that’s been grown under the controlled conditions.
cultures are grown in larger fermentation vessels to either obtain lots of microorganism or to obtain the product that they make. biotechnology uses cultures of microorganism.

40
Q

what are the features of a fermentation vessel/?

A 
paddles
ph probe
water in
water out
product
water jacket
a tube of waste gas out 
culture medium
sterile air in
41
Q

factors of fermentation vessel - PH –how is It regulated and how does it maximise the yield ?

A

its regulated as its constantky monitored by a ph probe and kept at an optimum level and it maximises yield as it allows enzymes to work efficiently so the rate of reaction is kept as high as possible.

42
Q

factors of fermentation vessel - TEMPRATURE –how is It regulated and how does it maximise the yield ?

A

its regulated as its kept constant by a water jacket, that surrounds the entire vessel.and it maximises yield as it allows enzymes to work efficiently so the rate of reaction is kept as high as possible.

43
Q

factors of fermentation vessel - access to nutrients–how is It regulated and how does it maximise the yield ?

A

its regulated by the use of paddles that circulate fresh nutrient medium around the vessel.also , it maximises the yield by ensuring that microrganiss always have access to their required nutrient.

44
Q

factors of fermentation vessel - volume of oxygen –how is It regulated and how does it maximise the yield ?

A

it regulates by making sure that the sterile air is pumped into the vessel when needed and it also maximises the yield by making sure that the organisms always have oxygen for respiration

45
Q

factors of fermentation vessel - vessel kept sterile –how is It regulated and how does it maximise the yield ?

A

its regulated by superheated steam that sterilises the vessel after each use and it also maximises the yield by killing any unwanted organisms that may compete with the ones being cultured for nutriets or anything else.

46
Q

what are or tell me some important aseptic techniques that should be followed when culturing microrganisms in a lab?

A
  • regularly disinfect work surface to minimise contamination.
  • work near Bunsen flame , as the hot air rises , any organisms in the air would be drawn away from the culture.
  • sterile the instruments used to transfer cultures before and after each use.
  • minimise the time agar plate is open and put a lid on as soon as possible.this reduces the chance of airborne microrganisms conataminating the culture.
  • sterilise all glasswere before and after use eg: autoclave
  • wear a lab coat and if needed gloves. tie long hair back to prevent it from falling into anything.
47
Q

what’s a closed culture?

A

a closed culture is when a growth takes place in a vessel that’s isolated from the externam enviorment - extra nutrients aren’t added and waste products aren’t removed from the vessel during growth.

48
Q

what are some feautures of the standard growth curve ?

A

lag phase
exponential phase
stationary phase
decline phase

49
Q

whats a lag phase

A

in this the population size increases slowly because the microrganisms have to make enzymes and molecules before they can reproduce. this means that reproduction rate is slow.

50
Q

whats an exponential phase

A

in this phase population size increases quickly beause the culture conditions are at the most favourable for reproduction.(lots of food and littw

51
Q

whats an exponential phase

A

in this phase population size increases quickly beause the culture conditions are at the most favourable for reproduction.(lots of food and little competition). the number of microrganisms doubles at regular intervals.

52
Q

whats a stationary phase ?

A

in this phase the population stays level because death rate of the microrganisms equals to the reproductive rate. microrganisms die because theres not enough food and poisonous waste products build up.

53
Q

whats decline face

A

the population size falls because the death rate is greater than the reproductive rate.this is because food is very scare and waste products are at toxic levels

54
Q

how do you culture microrganisms in a lab ?

A
  • on an agar plate - a sterile petri dish containing agar jelly
  • microrganisms are transferred to this plate from a sample using steriiile implements like a wire inoculation loop or a sterile pippete and spreader.
  • then you incubate the plates and allow the microrganisms to grow
  • nutrients can be added to agar to help improve the growing conditions.
55
Q

what are the factors that might affect the growth of microrganisms ?

A

ph

nutrients avalibility

56
Q

isolated emzymes can be ………………….

A

immobilised and used in the industry can become mixed in with the products of the reaction.the products then need to be separated from this mixture which can be complicated and costly.
- this is avoided in large scale production by using immobilised enzyes

57
Q

whats an immobilised enzyme

A

enzymes that are attached to an insolubale material so they cant become mixed with the products.

58
Q

what are the 3 ways enzymes can be immobilised?

A
  • encapsulated in jelly-like alginate beads, which act as a semi-permeable membrane.
  • trapped in a silica get matrix
  • covalently bonded to cellulose or collagen fibres
59
Q

what are the advantages of immobilised enzymes?

A
  • coloumns of immobilised enzymes can be washed and reused -this reduces the cost of running a recation on an industrial scale because you don’t hhave to keep buying new enzymes.
  • the product isn’t mixed with the enzymes therefore no money is spent separating them out.
  • immobilised enzymes are more stable than free enzymes -they are less likely to denature.
60
Q

what are the disadvantages of immobilised enzymes?

A
  • extra equipment is required which can be expensive
  • immobilised enzymes are more expensive to buy that free enzymes.
  • the immobilisation of enzymes can sometimes lead to reduction in the enzyme activity because they cant freely mix with their substrate.
61
Q

what are the different industrial processes immobilised enzymes used for ?

A
  • conversion of lactose to glucose and galactose
  • production of semi-synthetic penicillins
  • conversion of dextrins to glucose
  • conversion of glucose to fructose
  • production of pure sample of amino acids

biology - aerobic respirationn (6 decks)

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