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Psychology - Research Methods > Planning and Conducting Research > Flashcards

Planning and Conducting Research Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a research question?

A

This is a question asked by psychologists of the cause of a behaviour. A research question might be suggested by an event such as the Holocaust in Milgram’s case or due based on previous research or theories such as Sperry’s split brain research.

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2
Q

What is a research aim?

A

What you aim to find out based on your research question.

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3
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A specific, testable prediction of how one variable affects another. When writing a hypothesis for an experiment, always use the word effect.

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4
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

This is a hypothesis that predicts NO effect on the dependent variable. That any result found is due to error or chance.

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5
Q

What is a alternative hypothesis?

A

This this is a hypothesis that predicts an effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable

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6
Q

What is a one-tailed (directional) alternative hypothesis?

A

This is a hypothesis that predicts a certain direction independent variable will affect the dependent variable. When writing a hypothesis, you must always operationalise it. This means you must state, the conditions of you IV and the measure you used for your DV and how it was scored.

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7
Q

What is a two-tailed (non directional) alternative hypothesis?

A

This is a hypothesis that predicts that effect will occur, it just doesn’t state the direction of that effect.

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8
Q

What is a target population?

A

The set of people researchers want to study.

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9
Q

What is a sample?

A

A small set of people taken from the target population.

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10
Q

When making a sample want balance does the researcher have to make?

A

Getting as representative as simple as they can and being cost and time effective when conducting the stud.

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11
Q

What is meant by a representative sample?

A

How well a sample reflects the target population. Samples can be biased; they do not reflect the target population and this affects the conclusions we can draw from these samples.

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12
Q

What is gender bias?

A

The sample is made of people from one gender, it is not representative of all genders.

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13
Q

What is the name for a sample that contains a large proportion of males?

A

Androcentric or alpha bias

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14
Q

What is the name for a sample that contains a large proportion of females?

A

Gynocentric or beta bias

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15
Q

What is cultural bias?

A

The sample is too focused on one culture, isn’t representative of all cultures.

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16
Q

What is meant by the term ethnocentric?

A

This is when research is generalised to other cultures without considering how cultures are different

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17
Q

What is population validity?

A

Being able to generalise results from our sample to the target population and still hold true.

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18
Q

What is random sampling?

A

Every member of the population has a fair and equal chance of taking part.

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19
Q

What are the strengths of random sampling?

A

The most representative sampling technique to use, all types of people in the population are equally likely to be chosen.

Unbiased sample as the researcher has no part in deciding who is selected, therefore reduces the chance of researcher bias, increasing validity.

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20
Q

What are the weaknesses of random sampling?

A

Time consuming and hard to ensure that everyone is equally chosen.

Sample could still be biased e.g. if only girls happen to be selected, this would create a gynocentric sample that lacks generalisability.

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21
Q

What is snowball sampling?

A

Participants are recruited through friends/colleagues of existing participants.The psychologist will find one participant and once they have been studied, the researcher will ask if they know anyone in the same situation who would be interested to take part in the research.

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22
Q

What are the strengths of snowball sampling?

A

Quick and easy to carry out as you only have to find a few participants, then they find the rest for you.

It is a convenient way to find a sample with certain characteristics as friends are likely to be similar therefore representative to the target population.

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23
Q

What are the weaknesses of snowball sampling?

A

Sample Bias due to having similar characteristics/culture as they all friends, therefore less generalisable.

More chance of social desirability if all participants are friends with each other. This would decrease the validity of the results.

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24
Q

What is an opportunity sampling?

A

Anyone who is available at the time of your research is selected.

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25
Q

What are the strengths of opportunity sampling?

A

Quick and easy to carry out. This is a strength as it is very easy to replicate and is far more time efficient than other sampling methods.

Can help to collect participants with similar characteristics as people who share characteristics tend to segregate in the same areas.

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26
Q

What are the weaknesses of opportunity sampling?

A

Not representative as the kinds of people available are likely to be limited, and therefore similar, this makes the sample difficult to generalise to the wider population.

Increased chance of researcher bias as they may only approach people who they feel will give them the results they want

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27
Q

What is self selected (volunteer) sample?

A

Participants choose themselves to take part in the study. They could be recruited through; using online email surveys, signing up or applying to take part, or responding to adverts or posters.

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28
Q

What are the strengths of self selected sampling?

A

Easy and quick sample. less likely to drop out as they have come to you and volunteered.

Can reach a wider variety of participants through emails, posters, advertisements compared to opportunity sample, which will only cover a small area.

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29
Q

What are the weaknesses of self selected sampling?

A

Sample Bias, usually there are certain individuals that volunteer for studies and therefore may not be representative of all people.

Not enough interest which may lead to a small sample.

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30
Q

What is a single blind test?

A

When the participants are unaware of the condition that they are in. This means they are less likely to guess the aim of the study as they have not been given reasons or explanations as to the condition they are in. Therefore reducing demand characteristics.

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31
Q

What is a double blind test?

A

Neither the researcher or the participants are aware of which condition an individual is in. This ensures that demand characteristics are reduced from the participants, but also researcher bias is also reduced.

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32
Q

What is researcher bias?

A

Researcher bias is when the researcher intentionally or unintentionally influences the behaviour of the participants in order to get the participants to fit in with the results that they want.

33
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

Counterbalancing works by splitting a condition of participants in half and making them experience all possible orders of the study

34
Q

How does counterbalancing resolve order effects?

A

Counterbalancing works when both groups have been affected by the order effects equally as much as each other. This means that the order effects are cancelled out. This means that the results are equally affected and we can more confidently say that it was the IV caused a change, rather than extraneous variables.

35
Q

What is a repeated measures design?

A

When the same participants, participate in each condition.

36
Q

What are the strengths of a repeated measures design?

A

Individual differences are unlikely to distort the effect of the IV on the DV, as participants do both levels.

Uses fewer participants, so maybe easier to collect.

If counterbalancing is used, this can reduce order effects as outlined in the evaluation of independent measures design.

37
Q

What are the weaknesses of a repeated measures design?

A

Order effects such as practice and fatigue effects (boredom) do not contribute a valid reflection of their behaviour.

Participants see the the experimental task more than once meaning they are more likely to guess the aim meaning they are more likely to show demand characteristics.

38
Q

What is an independent measures design?

A

This is when different participants participate in each condition.

39
Q

What are the strengths of an independent measures design?

A

Different participants are used in each condition, so there are no practice affects (demand characteristics).

Participants only see the experimental task once, meaning that they are less likely to guess the aims of the study and change their behaviour as a result thus increasing validity.

40
Q

What are the weaknesses of an independent measures design?

A

Individual differences could act as an extraneous variable.

More participants are needed, so maybe more difficult to find.

It can be further be improved by carrying out a single blind or a double blind procedure.

41
Q

What is a matched pairs design?

A

This is when different participants participate in each condition. However, each participant in one group is matched on a certain characteristic to another participant in the other group. The matching is done on relevant variables.

42
Q

What is a strength of a matched pairs design?

A

Different participants are used in each condition, so there are no order effects.

Participants only see the experimental task once, meaning that they are less likely to guess the aims of the study, and therefore reduce demand characteristics.

The effects of individual differences are highly controlled, so less chance of participant extraneous variables.

43
Q

What is a weaknesses of a matched pairs design?

A

The similarity between the matched participants in each condition may be limited. It is difficult to ensure that the matching is completely accurate.

Matching participants can be very time consuming and difficult.

44
Q

What is the operationalisation of variables?

A

In psychology you must state clearly how a variable will be manipulated (IV) or measured (DV). It is also important to operationalise so that your research can be easily repeated – increasing replicability.

45
Q

What is an IV?

A

Independent variable, the variable that is manipulated or changed (to affect the DV.

46
Q

What is an DV?

A

Dependent variable, the variable that is being tested and measured in a scientific experiment.

47
Q

What is a control?

A

The condition where no change is made.

48
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

These are variables that could affect the DV when we don’t want them to. Researchers only want the IV to affect the DV.

49
Q

What is a situational variable?

A

These are extraneous variables that could affect participants behaviour in the environment (lighting, sound, temperature).

50
Q

What is a design variable?

A

These are extraneous variables like order effects, fatigue effects i.e. tiredness by carrying out a repeated measures design.

51
Q

What is a participant variable?

A

These are extraneous variables like mood, intelligence. Things about the participant that may affect their behaviour in the study.

52
Q

What is standardisation?

A

Keeping the test conditions the same for every participant.

53
Q

What is randomisation?

A

Where participants are allocated to experimental conditions on a chance.

54
Q

What is a behavioural category?

A

A clearly defined behaviours are identified, which can be observed and recorded. These may be placed on a checklist and tallied every time that behaviour occurs.This is a from of event sampling

55
Q

What are the strengths of a behavioural category?

A

They provide quantitative data which can be easily compared between conditions.

Can easily be presented, summarised and analysed statistically

56
Q

What are the weaknesses of a behavioural category?

A

It may give a restricted view of what is happening, especially true if time-point sampling is used.

The research may miss important behaviour and the data is not in depth meaning it won’t explain actions of participants

57
Q

What are coding frames?

A

They allow for more specific behaviours to be observed with in a behaviour category. Codes and abbreviations can be used to record the severity of behaviours or a different subtype within a category.

58
Q

What are the strengths of observations?

A

See how people behave rather than how they say they behave.

Allows us to study variables it would be unethical to manipulate.

Useful as pilot to generate hypothesis for future research.

59
Q

What are the weaknesses of observations?

A

Difficult to replicate.

Does not provide us with thoughts or feelings, only behaviour.

No manipulating variables, so can’t establish cause and effect.

Observer bias.

Time consuming and requires careful preparation

60
Q

What is event sampling?

A

A data collection technique that uses a checklist of possible activities, which are tallied as they occur.

61
Q

What are the strengths of event sampling?

A

Records are easy to obtain and analyse as researchers can clearly see the total number of behaviours for each event. Making it quick easy and quantifiable.

More reliable observations, as the events are already planned, therefore it could be easily replicated to measure consistency of observational behaviours.

62
Q

What are the weaknesses of event sampling?

A

It can miss important behaviours due to having set events already planned, other behaviours that were not considered are missed, reducing validity.

If many events occur at once it may lead to behaviours not being recorded, reducing validity.

It gives no indication of the amount of time spent on each behavioural category, therefore it can sometimes lead to less valid conclusions about behaviour.

63
Q

What is time sampling?

A

Behaviour is observed and recorded at specific time intervals (e.g. every 10 minutes for a period of 15 seconds)

64
Q

What is time point sampling?

A

Where the observer records what the participant is doing at fixed intervals.

65
Q

What is time event sampling?

A

Where a fixed period of time is set for the observation.

66
Q

What are the strengths of time sampling?

A

Less likely to miss behaviours as the researcher usually has a short time to focus on recording behaviour, therefore is more likely to be accurate.

It can give an indication of how much time is spent on each behaviour.

67
Q

What are the weaknesses of time sampling?

A

Behaviours that occur outside the time intervals are not accounted for, therefore may reduce validity as important behaviours may be missed.

Can be hard if lots of behaviour occurs at once.

You can miss events not coded for, reducing validity

68
Q

What are open questions?

A

This question leaves the answer open to the participant to respond however they want. Tend to provide qualitative data, as you allow the participant to respond however they want and this can be rich in detail.

69
Q

What are the strengths of open questions?

A

They produce qualitative data, giving participants an opportunity to fully express their opinions, thus increasing validity.

All info is analysed so information is not lost by averaging answers, increasing validity.

70
Q

What are the weaknesses of open questions?

A

Qualitative data is time consuming to analyse as themes need to be identified.

Interpretation of data is subjective, leading to bias. This can lead to issues of validity.

The inconsistency of interpreting data can lead to low inter-rater reliability.

Findings are based on individuals so may lack generalisability.

71
Q

What are closed questions?

A

Only provide quantitative data, as you limit the number of responses the participant gives, so their response is lacking in detail. You also can count how often someone gives a response providing quantitative data.

72
Q

What are the weaknesses of closed questions?

A

Lacks detail, participants can’t express opinions fully, lacks validity.

Risk of response bias e.g. saying yes to everything.

The score for all participants on each question is only nominal data so only the mode can be calculated. Limited analysis.

73
Q

What are fixed choice questions?

A

Phrased so that the respondent has to make a fixed choice answer usually ‘yes’ or ‘no’.

74
Q

What are checklist questions?

A

Give a list of options and told to choose as many as apply to the participant.

75
Q

What are ranking questions?

A

Whereby participants are instructed to put a list of options into order.

76
Q

What are likert scale questions?

A

Whereby participants indicate on a scale how much you agree with a statement. It is also known as a verbal rating scale.

Example: “Psychology is the most important subject ever”.

Circle one answer:
Strongly agree, Agree, Unsure, Disagree, Strongly Disagree

77
Q

What is a semantic differential question?

A

This indicate where you stand on a scale between two contrasting adjectives, such as: good/bad, hungry/full, and exciting/boring.

78
Q

What are the all the possible questions you can be asked in a self report? (there are 7)

A 
Open questions
Closed questions
Fixed choice questions
Checklist questions
Ranking questions
Likert scale questions
Semantic differential questions

Psychology - Research Methods (5 decks)

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