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Psychology - Research Methods > Data recording, analysis and presentation > Flashcards

Data recording, analysis and presentation Flashcards

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1
Q

What is raw data?

A

Raw data is the data that psychologists collect for each participant.

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2
Q

What is nominal level data?

A

Data that are produced as named categories. Closed questions often produce nominal data, as well as observations which code behaviour.

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3
Q

What is ordinal level data?

A

Data which can ranked in ‘order’. There needs to be an increase in value of points along your data , but the size of each increase does not need to be equal. The data is not continuous.

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4
Q

What is interval level data?

A

The divisions between the points on an interval scale are equal. For example, time, volume, speed, height, weight etc.

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5
Q

What is primary data?

A

When a researcher collects data either by witnessing an event or by carrying out an experiment or questionnaire. It can be quantitative or qualitative.

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6
Q

What is secondary data?

A

When data is collected second hand, which is through the analysis of pre-existing data, we call this secondary data.

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7
Q

What is mean and how is it calculated?

A

The average of the numbers. It is calculated by adding up all the scores and dividing by the total number of scores.

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8
Q

What are the strengths and weakness of the mean?

A

It uses all of the values in the data set, so is the most sensitive value.

When there are extreme values or outliers, the mean can be skewed.

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9
Q

What is the median and how is it calculated?

A

The middle number. It is calculated by finding the middle score after placing all the scores in numerical order.

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10
Q

What are the strengths and weakness of the median?

A

When there are extreme values the median is less affected than the mean.

It is less sensitive to variations in the data, so may not present a true picture.

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11
Q

What is mode and how is it calculated?

A

The value that appears most frequently in a set of data. When there is more than one number that appears the most frequently, we call this bimodal.

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12
Q

What are the strengths and weakness of mode?

A

When there is frequency/categorical data, as the others are not appropriate.

There may be no modal value or several.

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13
Q

What is range and how is it calculated?

A

The difference between the lowest and highest values. It is calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score in a data set.

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14
Q

What are the strengths of calculating the range as a measure of dispersion?

A

Easy to calculate.

Takes into consideration extreme score

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15
Q

What are the weaknesses of calculating the range as a measure of dispersion?

A

Only using two scores in the data set and ignoring the rest.

The extreme scores could distort the range

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16
Q

What is variance and how can it be interpreted?

A

Tells us about the spread of scores around the mean. So a small variance would imply that the scores are all similar and close to the mean. A large variance would indicate that the scores are at a larger distance from the mean.

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17
Q

What are the strengths of calculating the variance as a measure of dispersion?

A

Is not very distorted by extreme scores.

The SD is closely related to the mean and is the best measure of dispersion to use when the mean is being used as the measure of central tendency

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18
Q

What are the strengths of calculating the variance as a measure of dispersion?

A

Is not very distorted by extreme scores.

The SD is closely related to the mean and is the best measure of dispersion to use when the mean is being used as the measure of central tendency

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19
Q

What are the weaknesses of calculating the variance as a measure of dispersion?

A

Takes a long period of time to calculate.

Assumes a normal distribution

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20
Q

What is standard deviation and how is it calculated?

A

The square root of the variance, so it tells us the average amount a number differs from the mean.

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21
Q

What are the strengths of calculating the SD as a measure of dispersion?

A

SD is the most sensitive measure of dispersion as it is derived by using every score in the data set and Is not very distorted by extreme scores.

The SD is closely related to the mean and is the best measure of dispersion to use when the mean is being used as the measure of central tendency .

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22
Q

What are the weaknesses of calculating the SD as a measure of dispersion?

A

Takes a long period of time to calculate Assumes a normal distribution.

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23
Q

What is a ratio?

A

A ratio is how much of one thing there is compared to another thing.

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24
Q

When are line graphs used?

A

These are used to show the results from two or more conditions at the same time.

Continuous data.

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25
Q

What axis does the IV and DV go on a line graph?

A

IV goes on the X axis

DV goes on the Y axis

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26
Q

What is a pie chart and what type of data is required?

A

Are used when we have percentages. Each segment represents a percentage of the total.

Nominal level data.

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27
Q

What are a bar chart and what data is required?

A

Bar charts can be used to represent the data from frequency tables, mean scores or the totals.

They are used with nominal or ordinal levels of measurement.

The bars are kept separate from each other.

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28
Q

What type of data is used in a histogram and how are they laid out?

A

Histograms are used with interval data. There are no gaps between the columns to represent a continuous data set.

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29
Q

How is frequency density calculated in a histogram?

A

frequency / class width

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30
Q

When are scatter graphs used?

A

Are used with correlations where the relationship of two variables is summarised.

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31
Q

Draw a normal distribution curve and what is the shape known as?

A

Bell curve

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32
Q

What is a level of significance?

A

This is the level at which psychologist will reject the null hypothesis, typically 95 per cent.

So there is a 95% probability of the independent varible having affected the dependent varible having affected the dependent varible and 5% likelihood of it being simply due to chance.

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33
Q

How is the level of significance shown?

A

p < 0.05

Where p = the probability of the results being due to chance
0.05 = 5%

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34
Q

What is type 1 error?

A

The alternative hypothesis is accepted and the null hypothesis is rejected, the behaviour being shown is down to chance.

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35
Q

What is type 1 error?

A

The alternative hypothesis is accepted and the null hypothesis is rejected, the behaviour being shown is down to chance.

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36
Q

What is type 2 error?

A

The rejection of the alternative hypothesis and the acceptance of the null hypothesis, when the IV is really having a significant impact on the DV.

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37
Q

What level data and experimental design is required for a Chi-Square test?

A

Independent measures

Nominal

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38
Q

What level data and experimental design is required for a Binomial Sign test?

A

Repeated measures

Nominal

39
Q

What level data and experimental design is required for a Binomial Sign test Mann-Whitney U test?

A

Independent measures

Ordinal

40
Q

What level data and experimental design is required for a Mann-Whitney U test?

A

Repeated measures

Ordinal

41
Q

What level data and experimental design is required for Spearman’s Rho Correlation Coefficent?

A

Test for correlation

Ordinal

42
Q

What is an observed value?

A

The number produced after the various steps and calculations for a statistical test have been carried out.

43
Q

What is a critical value

A

A value taken from a statistical test table, which must be reached in order for results to be significant.

44
Q

What does Chi Squared Test aim to do?

A

It tests whether the distribution of results in an experiment differs from what would be expected on the basis of chance alone.

45
Q

What is the checklist for a Chi Squared test?

A

DV produces nominal type of data.

Independent Measures design.

Exploring a difference between each condition (levels of the IV), or an association.

46
Q

In the Chi Squared how is the expected value calculated?

A

The expected value is the

(Column Total * Raw Total) / Total

47
Q

In the Chi Squared how is the degrees of freedom calculated?

A

(number of rows in the table – 1) x (number of columns in the table -1)

48
Q

When do you accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null in Chi Squared?

A

When the critical value is lower than observed value.

49
Q

What does the Mann Whitney U test aim to test?

A

The Mann Whitney U test is used to find out whether there is a significant difference between two sets of ordinal data and produces an observed value given the name ‘U’.

50
Q

What is the checklist for the Mann Whitney U test?

A

DV produces ordinal or interval type of data.

Independent Measures design.

Exploring a difference between each condition (levels of the IV)

51
Q

When do you accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null in Mann Whitney U?

A

When the observed value is less than the critical value.

52
Q

What does the Wilcoxen Signed Rank test aim to test?

A

This test is used when the hypothesis predicts a difference between two variables. It produces an observed value given the name ‘T’ or ‘W’.

53
Q

What is the check list for the Wilcoxen Signed Rank test?

A

DV produces ordinal type of data.

Repeated Measures design

Exploring a difference between each condition (levels of the IV)

54
Q

When do you accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null in the Wilcoxen Signed Rank test?

A

if the observed value is larger than the critical value.

55
Q

What does the Binomial sign test aim to measure?

A

This test is used to find out whether there is a significant difference between two sets of data.

56
Q

What is the check list for the Binomial sign test?

A

DV produces nominal type data.

Repeated Measures design

Exploring a difference between each condition (levels of the IV).

57
Q

When do you accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null in the Binomial sign test?

A

When the observed value is smaller the critical value.

58
Q

What does Spearman’s Rho aim to measure?

A

The aim of Spearman’s Rho is used to examine the relationship between two co-variables. Spearman’s Rho uses ranks rather than actual values.

59
Q

What is the checklist for Spearman’s Rho?

A

Appropriate for variables that produces at least ordinal type of data.

Exploring a relationship between co-variables.

A correlational design has been used.

60
Q

When do you accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null in Spearman’s Rho?

A

When the observed value is larger the critical value.

61
Q

The meaning off: =

A

equals

62
Q

The meaning off:

A

When one value is smaller than another

63
Q

The meaning off: <

A

Much less than

64
Q

The meaning off: >

A

When one value is larger than another

65
Q

The meaning off:&raquo_space;

A

Much larger than

66
Q

The meaning off: ∝

A

Proportional to, a relationship between two variables in which one is a constant multiple of the other.

67
Q

The meaning off: ~

A

Approximately

68
Q

What is reliability?

A

The overall consistency of the measure or study.

69
Q

What is internal reliability?

A

How consistent results are within the test?

70
Q

What is split half reliability?

A

The split-half method assesses the internal consistency of a test by comparing the results of one half of a test with the results from the other half

71
Q

What is inter rater reliability?

A

The method of measuring the external consistency of a test. This method is carried out by different “raters” giving consistent estimates/measures of behaviour.

72
Q

What is external reliability?

A

Refers to the extent to which a measure varies from one use to another.

73
Q

What is test re-test reliability?

A

It measures the stability of a test over time. If the same or similar results are obtained in a re test of the study then external reliability is established.

74
Q

What is validity?

A

The accuracy of a test’s ability to measure what it is supposed to measure

75
Q

What is external validity?

A

Whether the findings will generalise to other populations, locations, contexts and times and still hold true

76
Q

What is Ecological validity?

A

The extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalised to real-life settings

77
Q

What is population validity?

A

How representative the sample used is to the entire population

78
Q

What is temporal validity?

A

Will the findings still be valid as society changes over the years.

79
Q

What is internal validity?

A

The IV is the only variable affecting the DV

80
Q

What is face validity?

A

The degree to which a procedure appears effective in terms of its stated aims

81
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

Whether a measure produces similar results for a participant as another test that claims to measure the same thing

82
Q

What is criterion validity?

A

Whether a factor measured in one way will relate to, or predict some other related variable

83
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

A cue that makes participants aware of what the experimenter expects to find or how participants are expected to behave

84
Q

What is social desirability?

A

Describes the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favourably by others.

85
Q

What is experimenter bias?

A

The researcher influences the results in order to portray a certain outcome

86
Q

What is observer bias?

A

The researcher cognitive bias causes them to subconsciously influence the participants of an experiment

87
Q

What is observer effect?

A

Refers to subjects altering their behaviour when they are aware that an observer is present.

88
Q

What are the 6 main ethical considerations?

A
  1. deception
  2. debrief
  3. informed consent
  4. right to withdraw
  5. avoid psychological or physical harm
  6. confidentiality
89
Q

What is deception as an ethical issue?

A

Participants should not be deliberately lied to about the aim of the study and procedure. If participants are not told the true aim of the study, every step should be taken to ensure that there are no harmful effects to the participant

90
Q

What is debrief as an ethical issue?

A

Full explanation of the aims and potential consequences of a study are given to the participants straight after the study has finished

91
Q

What is informed consent as an ethical issue?

A

Having sufficient knowledge about the study to know whether they want to participate.

92
Q

What is right to withdraw as an ethical issue?

A

Participants should be made aware that they can leave at anytime and can remove their data from the study at anytime.

93
Q

What is avoiding psychological or physical harm as an ethical issue?

A

Participants should leave in the same positive state when they finish the study, as when they arrived

94
Q

What is confidentiality as an ethical issue?

A

Participants results and personal information should be kept safely and not released to anyone outside of the study.

Psychology - Research Methods (5 decks)

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