PL1035 Social Psychology

Question 1

A ‘self-schema’ is

Answer 1

an internalised cognitive framework or belief system relating to ourselves which inform our perception and attention. They can relate to personality traits, physical characteristics, and interests.

Question 2

a renewable resource that will continually support many people provided that everyone shows restraint in ‘harvesting’ the resource

Answer 2

replenishable ressource dilemma

Question 3

A study examining impression-management that evaluates the effectiveness of a certain type of bragging

Answer 3

Sezer, Gino & Norton (2018)

Question 4

A study on temporal comparisons

Answer 4

Wilson and Ross (2001)

Question 5

A study showing a real-world application of theory on possible selves.

Answer 5

Oyserman and Markus (1990)

Question 6

Classical Study on Self-Discrepancy Theory

Answer 6

Higgins et al 1986

Question 7

Cognitive dissonance as a public communication strategy Fear or morality appeals:

Answer 7

Adding dissonant cognitions (or drawing attention to them) to change attitudes and behaviour

Question 8

Actual, Ideal and Ought Self

Answer 8

• how a person sees the self at the present time
• how a person would like to see the self
• how a person thinks they ought to be, based on ideals of duty and responsibility.

Question 9

Shim, Lee-Won & Park, 2016?

Answer 9

people with public self-consciousness make more effort to present themselves positively -> posting pictures having fun or being with friends

Question 10

Attentional bias

Answer 10

previous exposure to stimuli leads to increased identification of similar stimuli

Question 11

attribution theory

Answer 11

the study of how people explain events

Question 12

Availability Heuristic

Answer 12

making decisions based upon how easy it is to bring something to mind likely judging these outcomes as being more common or frequently occurring.

Question 13

Beamer, Klentz, Diener and Svanum (1979) reported that:

Answer 13

children who believed they were alone were less likely to steal sweets when a mirror was placed in front of them. It is an example of how private self-awareness can be primed.

Question 14

behaviourism

Answer 14

Approach based on explaining behaviours in relation to reinforcement

Question 15

Bounded Rationality

Answer 15

describes the way that humans make decisions that departs from perfect economic rationality, because we’re limited by our thinking capacity, the information that is available to us, and time.

Question 16

Consider that there is always a potential dispositional cause and a potential situational cause for any given action.

Why does this statement potentially highlight a limitation to the translational value of the Fundamental Attribution Error in the real world?

Answer 16

Because it suggests that it is difficult to isolate either the actor’s attributes or environmental factors as the ‘true’ cause of any behaviour

Question 17

Consider which email employs the gain frame and which employs the loss frame.
According to Kahneman & Tversky, which version would make your pre-June ticket purchase more likely?

Answer 17

Individuals are loss aversive, and losses loom larger than gains.

Paying the late penalty fee (loss = losing money) feels more ‘painful’ to an individual than the corresponding ‘pleasure’ of being awarded an early purchase discount (gain = saving money) of the same monetary value. Individuals may be more responsive to the version
b) to avoid this perceived loss.

Question 18

Discursive psychology

Answer 18

language is viewed as social action, through which people construct their social world.

Question 19

Downward social comparison

Answer 19

I am ‘better’ than the other in a specific domain

Question 20

Dual process model identifies two modes of decision-making (Kahneman, 2003)

Answer 20

• System 1: impulsive, fast, difficult to modify or control (more likely periphiral route to persuasion)
• System 2: slow, effortful, guides behaviours through long-term goals and in-depth logic. (central route to persuasion)

Question 21

ego depletion

Answer 21

self-control and willpower are a finite resource that can be used up (controversial to proof)

Question 22

Experiments testing correspondent inference theory/FAE?

Answer 22

Jones & Harris 1967

Question 23

Explain Cognitive Dissonance and resolution using the following.

Belief: Monogamy is an important feature of my marriage. Problem: I’m having an affair. I don’t like experiencing this nagging and uncomfortable cognitive dissonance. I’m on edge.

Answer 23

Changing a belief: changing one or more of the inconsistent cognitions ‘What’s wrong with continuing if no one finds out?’ This can be facilitated by derogating the source of one of the cognitions: ‘Fidelity is a construct of religious indoctrination’.

Changing an action: Stop having the affair.

Changing the perception of the action: ‘My partner doesn’t understand me, so this was always going to happen’, which can again be facilitated by challenging the original perception of the action. ‘Fidelity is a construct of religious indoctrination and isn’t necessarily an ideal to aspire to. Extramarital activity is not indisputably wrong’.

Question 24

Explain Lavin & Groarkes’ findings (2005)

Answer 24

Implementation intentions were not found to be an effective intervention in increasing dental floss behaviour. Results suggest that interventions should target an individual’s attitude and perceptions of control in order to increase dental floss intentions and behaviour.

Question 25

What is the maxim of cognitive dissonance model?

Answer 25

➜ The maxim appears to be: The greater the dissonance, the stronger the attempts to reduce it.

Question 26

familiarity heuristic

Answer 26

people tend to have more favorable opinions of things, people, or places they’ve experienced before as opposed to new ones

Question 27

Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) findings on cognitive dissonance

Answer 27

Those paid less ($1) reported more positive attitudes towards task

Question 28

Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) study on cognitive dissonance

Answer 28

Completed boring task for 30 minutes Paid $1 or $20 to convince fellow student that task was funControl group not asked to convince anyone later had to rate (task enjoyment, scientific importance and their willingness to participate in similar studies)

Question 29

Findings and Methods of Higgins et al. 1986

Answer 29

gathered data on participants’ self-discrepancies had them describe differences between actual/ideal and actual/ought high actual/ideal discrepancy participants = dejection (sad, disappointed)high actual/ought discrepancy participants = agitation low discrepancy no significant changes

Question 30

Four key points from Tversky & Kahneman (1981) on heuristics and biases

Answer 30

1. Preferences change when the same scenario/problem is framed differently
2. In a gain frame (lives saved, money gained), people prefer certain options for gains
3. In a loss frame (i.e. lives lost, money lost), people prefer risky options for losses
4. Loss Aversion: losing something (an amount of money, an item) feels more ‘painful’ to an individual than the equivalent ‘pleasure’ of acquiring the same thing. For example, the degree of pain associated with losing £20 is greater than the degree of pleasure of winning £20. It is a simple, but powerful bias.

Question 31

What assumption can we make about Maxine, who feels like being a mother, someone who enjoys football and wine, is connected?

Answer 31

Maxine has an interdependent self-construal (and not social identity), which is typical in a collectivist culture

Question 32

Froming, Allen and Jensen (1985) study

Answer 32

1st, 2nd and 3rd American graders donated M&M candies to other children: in private or in the presence of an evaluative adult (who watched the child), a nonevaluative adult (present but busy looking at papers), or in front of a mirrorevaluative presence => increased donations among older children (2nd and 3rd graders) less donations made in privatefindings by proposing that older children had learned that the social norm for helping behaviour was valued by adults, and so they complied with this norm in the presence of an adult. public self-awareness was activated in the presence of an attentive adult, and the older children showed more pro-social behaviour.

Question 33

Gaining the benefits of group membership by avoiding costly obligations of membership and by allowing other members to incur those costs

Answer 33

free-rider effect

Question 34

Gestalt psychology

Answer 34

partly emerged out of the limitations of behaviourism. focuses on a more holistic view as perception is important in determining attitudes and behaviours → Kurt Lewin’s force field analysis

Question 35

Glassman & Albarracín (2006) As attitudes are being formed, they correlate more strongly with a future behaviour when:

Answer 35

attitudes are accessible (easy to recall) are stable over time People have had direct experience with the attitudes objectPeople frequently report their attitudes

Question 36

goods are provided for everyone: for example, public health, national parks, the national road network, public radio and TV. Because public goods are available to all, people are tempted to use them without contributing to their maintenance. This describes what?

Answer 36

public goods dilemma

Question 37

Hindsight bias

Answer 37

The tendency for people to see an outcome as inevitable once the actual outcome is known.

Question 38

How are stereotypes helpful

Answer 38

Making sense of the diversity of thesocial world, reducing self-uncertainty, classifying social roles, power differentials and intergroup conflicts , contributing to positive sense of ingroup identity

Question 39

How are the theory of reasoned action and planned behaviour linked

Answer 39

expansion of the reasoned action: if people believe they have control over a behaviour it’s easier to predict it from a measure of attitude; this expansion was needed because it wasn’t a good predictor behaviour

Question 40

How can stereotype threat be diminished?

Answer 40

Know streotype threat Reduce degree to which identity is tied to performance which could then be used tomake inferences Sever self-esteem from performance Identify strongly with stigmatised group Extensive favourable intergroup contact with anxiety inducing outgrouo

Question 41

How did Lavin & Groarke 2005 use the TPB

Answer 41

To look at techniques to encourage flossing among young people?

Question 42

How do aggression and self-esteem relate?

Answer 42

There is no clear causal relationship between low self-esteem and aggressive behaviour, a correlational relationship may exist.

Question 43

How do mood regulation and self-esteem relate to each other?

Answer 43

higher levels of self-esteem may show an improved ability to regulate their mood, compared with those with lower self-esteem.

Question 44

How do people, according to Latané and Darley’s model, decide whether to help?

Answer 44

.

Question 45

How does Festinger 1957 define cognitive dissonance

Answer 45

unpleasant state of psychological tension generated when a person has two or more cognitions (bits of information) that are inconsistent or do not fit together.

Question 46

How does it relate to realistic conflict theory

Answer 46

Competetive intergroup behaviour also emerges when goal relations are not interdependent between groups, when the groups are explicitly non-competitive and explicitly cooperative

Question 47

How does LaPiere (1934) touring USA with a Chinese couple relate to attitudes and emotions?

Answer 47

They visited - 184 hotels/restaurants visited 1 refused service. He contacted them 6 months later to check on changed attitudes?

Question 48

How does mortality salience and self-esteem relate to each other?

Answer 48

Study participants who have chronically (enduring) high self-esteem, or whose self-esteem is temporarily elevated by an experimental procedure, are less susceptible to the effects of induced mortality salience.

Question 49

How does narcisim relate to self-esteem?

Answer 49

high self-esteem (measured through positive self-reported evaluations) does not equate to a stable sense of self-worth, as measured through implicit association measures -> need for validation to maintain self-concept (Kernis & Paradise 2002) -> might lead to aggression when faced with criticism

Question 50

How does social facilitation occur

Answer 50

because others might be doing the same thing as you, the audience –> goverened by physiological, cognitive and attentive factors like anxiety or focus

Question 51

How might Bem’s self-perception theory offer a better explanation to cognitive dissonance resolution?

Answer 51

Attitudes may be changed through a self-attributional process when the behaviour falls within a range of personally acceptable conduct. So when someone acts outside of this range of acceptable behaviour cognitive dissonance resolution accont better for attitude change

Question 52

How was Schachter & Singer’s study 1962 structured

Answer 52

Some participants received adrenaline shot (increase in arousal) Others received placebo (salt solution)Some participants were told that injection would cause these effects, others remained uninformed or misinformed

Question 53

How would Freud, LeBon and McDoughall?

Answer 53

crowds unlock the unconscious and strip the super-ego that is norm conformative of controlanonzmitz, contangion and suggestibility make us antisocial and violentmost widespread instinctive emotions are the simple primitive ones (e.g. fear, anger) primate sympathy leads to the snowballing also aggregated by depersonalisation

Question 54

How’s the above-average effect a self-serving bias?

Answer 54

act of attributing behaviour in a distorted way to either enhance or protect our self-esteem (e.g. taking credit for success but explaining away failures). one inflates their own ability or performance in the above-average effect related to one’s self-esteem and self-image that the self-serving bias is protecting/enhancing.

Question 55

Importance of attitudes

Answer 55

cognitive and behavioural effects social norms (reciprocal) which are subject to change

Question 56

Impression management

Answer 56

active process of self-presentationpeople take steps to monitor their presentation of self in their interactions with others, so that they appear to others in the best possible light.

Question 57

Impression-management describes

Answer 57

managing your self-presentation

Question 58

In what ways has research in social psychology suggested that a person’s level of self-esteem influences how they think and act in life? (1)

Answer 58

Mood regulation, buffer against the inevitability of death, aggression, narcissism.

Question 59

What is the interaction effect?

Answer 59

Different causes may interact with each other to produce changes in a dependent variable (e.g, contact between groups and equality of status between groups interact to predict reductions in prejudice) 💡 f1: contact between groups f2: equality of status between them interaction: f1+f2= outcome

Question 60

Katz (1950) on functions and utility of attitudes?

Answer 60

high-functionality mechanisms in avoidance and approach of stimuli, protect self-esteem and consequently self-concept

Question 61

LaPiere (1934) findings ‘Will you accept members of the Chinese Race as guests in your establishment?’

Answer 61

118 (92%): no 1 (0.8%): yes 7 (5%): ‘Uncertain, depends on circumstances.’

Question 62

Lewandowski, Nardone and Raines (2010) Findings

Answer 62

self-concept clarity bolsters wellbeinglisting times when participants felt their behaviour was consistent with self-concept vs. participants that were assigned to self-concept confusion condition had to do the inversionparticipants in the clearity condition felt bettershows that it is not personality variable -> Nezlek & Plesko 2001 p.58

Question 63

Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1978) Study and Conclusion

Answer 63

the development of self-awareness:
* placed a spot of rouge on the noses of infants aged 9- 12 months and sat them in front of a mirror
* looked at their mirror image with no recognition and no effort to touch the rouge on their own noses.

= lack of awareness, self-concept children around 18 months of age who performed the same task made a concerted effort to rub the rouge from their own noses. p.58

Question 64

Loss aversion

Answer 64

people have a tendency to want to avoid losses much more than they would desire acquiring equivalent gains

Question 65

Manu watches all the “Jaws” movies, in which sharks attack people at sea. Manu decides she will never swim in the sea again, because she worries about the possibility of getting attacked by a shark-> heuristic?

Answer 65

availability heuristic

Question 66

mediation

Answer 66

effect of one variable on the outcome works through another interaction of groups -> anxiety about interaction with other groups(intermediate)= prejudice

Question 67

meta-cognitive skills

Answer 67

skills needed to evaluate oneself and others

Question 68

Miller (1984) Culture and the development of everyday social explanation what is the key finding?

Answer 68

As they grew older, American children were found by Miller (1984) to place increasing reliance upon disposition as an explanation of events observed. Hindu children of India, by contrast, based their explanations more on situations.

Question 69

moderation

Answer 69

is part of the interaction effect and means that the effect of a variable on the outcome is changed by a third variable contact between groups * equal structures within groups = prejudice?

Question 70

morality salience

Answer 70

The awareness of one’s own inevitable death

Question 71

Multiple role theory

Answer 71

Theory asserting that it is beneficial for a person’s health and well being to have multiple self-identities.

Question 72

Multiple Role Theory

Answer 72

self-identifying with different roles (parent, friend, employee)stabalising effect (growth and enjoyment vs. negative emotions)

Question 73

One study illustrating self-perception theory?

Answer 73

Van Gyn, Wenger and Gaul (1990)

Question 74

Optimism Bias

Answer 74

People believing that good things are more likely to happen to them than bad things

Question 75

Possible selves (Oyserman, Markus 90)

Answer 75

future-oriented components of the self-conceptthe link between the self-concept and a motivation to actimagined selves we could, would like to become, or are scared of becoming. incentive future behaviours and function as criteria against which outcomes are evaluated.

Question 76

Postmodernism

Answer 76

An intentionaI departure from previously dominant approaches of enquiry, emphasizing that apparent realities are only social constructs and are therefore subject to change.

Question 77

Priming

Answer 77

Exposure to stimuli that activate a mental representation of a particular concept, value, goal or object.

Question 78

Private Self-consciousness

Answer 78

Chronic private self-awareness and concern about pnvate aspects of the self.

Question 79

Public Self-awareness (Buss 1980)

Answer 79

a person becomes aware of the public aspects of the self and how they could be judged by other people

Question 80

Public Self-consciousness

Answer 80

Chronic public self-awareness and concern about how one looks and is evaluated by others.

Question 81

Replication

Answer 81

direct/exact: study is repeated as exactly as possible → way to verify the validity of research results or methods
BUT: realistically impossible
conceptual: ability to replicate the results after changing the methods used so that the results can be applied generally

Question 82

Representativeness heuristic (Tversky & Kahneman, 1971)

Answer 82

• compare aspects of the individual incident to other mental examples
• likelihood of an event depends on the similarity/ representativeness of said event -> stereotype

Question 83

Scarcity heuristics

Answer 83

we view things that are scarce or less available to us as inherently more valuable. -> “limited time only”

Question 84

Schachter & Singer (1962) empirical research study findings

Answer 84

Participants experienced their adrenaline surge differently depending on context. This supports the Schacter and Singer theory as it shows participants drew meaning from ambiguous changes in arousal and used that to construct emotions.

Question 85

Schematic’ and ‘aschematic’ mean…

Answer 85

particularly important or unimportant to a person’s sense of self

Question 86

Schwartz et al. (1991) conducted a compelling research study to show how a certain heuristic influences an individual’s thinking. Participants were asked to recall 6 or 12 times when they had been assertive or unassertive in their lives. What was the study’s conclusion?

Answer 86

Attributional processes underpin the availability heuristics

Question 87

Self-awareness

Answer 87

state of being aware of one’s unique characteristics, feelings and behaviours, which develops in early childhood.

Question 88

Self-Concept Clarity (Campbell et. al. 1996)

Answer 88

The extent to which self-schemas are clearly and confidently defined, consistent with each other, and stable across time.

Question 89

Self-discrepancy theory

Answer 89

people’s awareness of between how they are, how they would like to be and how they think they ought to be (ideal, actual, ought)Higgins, 1987

Question 90

Self-perception (Bem, 1972)

Answer 90

people may learn about themselves by examining their own thoughts, feelings and behaviours. behaviours are considered most important because they are more objective and easier to observe

Question 91

Self-presentation (Goffman, 1959)

Answer 91

people make concerted efforts to create an impression (usually a good one) of themselves to others.

Question 92

Self-presentation is

Answer 92

the way the self is presented to others (usually to a favorable effect)

Question 93

self-regulation

Answer 93

changing aspects of their behaviour in order for their actual self to become more in line with the ideal or ought self

Question 94

Self-schemas (Markus 1977)

Answer 94

beliefs people hold about themselves, and usually relate to dimensions of the overall ‘self’ (such as considering oneself as sensitive or assertive). =schematic vs aschematic set of self-schemas make up the overall self-concept

Question 95

Sezer, Gino & Norton (2018)

Answer 95

asked participants (453) about experience of another person humblebragging (recency, type, prevalence, gender/age)416 brags where typed as either complaint based or humility basedhumblebrags failed because of a lack of sincerity

Question 96

Social comparison

Answer 96

emphasises an individual’s need to compare themselves to other people. through such comparison, people learn information about themselves, and how to perceive themselves

Question 97

Social constructionism

Answer 97

Approach emphasizing the way social phenomena develop in social contexts.

Question 98

Social dilemma in which cooperation by all benefits all, but competition by all harms all

Answer 98

commons dilemma

Question 99

Social representations

Answer 99

Socially shared beliefs or widely shared ideas and values associated with our cultures.

Question 100

Spurious correlation

Answer 100

two variables have no direct connection but it is wrongly inferred they do, due to coincidences or boundary condition. Ex.: narcisism and well-being (moderated by self-esteem)

Question 101

strength model of self-control

Answer 101

self-control cannot be maintained for an unlimited period of time and needs to be replenished

Question 102

Study on Temporal Comparison

Answer 102

Wilson & Ross, 2000

Question 103

Study relating FAE and Culture

Answer 103

Miller 1984

Question 104

Study to Illustrate the Implications of the Availability Bias

Answer 104

Schwartz 1991

Question 105

Symbolic interactionism

Answer 105

investigation of how people create meaning through social interaction and how they construct and represent the self and how they define situations when they are with others

Question 106

Temporal comparison (Albert, 1977)

Answer 106

‘me’ compared with either actual past or anticipated future ‘me’

Question 107

The dunning-kruger effect is a prime example of peoples limited self-knowledge and awareness as it

Answer 107

illustrates that in a series of questions people lacking certian skills disproportionatly overestimate themselves and others higher or lower for their competences and performance despite not having any knowledge (lacking meta-cognitive skills) 1999

Question 108

The self-concept is

Answer 108

the image we have of ourselves, or who we believe we are and consists of our self-schemas

Question 109

Trial and error heuristic

Answer 109

people use a number of different strategies to solve something until they find what works -> video gaming, driving

Question 110

True Self

Answer 110

Characteristics of the self-concept that are essential for making a person who they are.

Question 111

Three Gigerenzer (1996) critiques of Tversky & Kahneman (1981)

Answer 111

ignored contextual and environmental influece on choiceonly superficial descriptor for and no explanation for cognitive processes that lead to judgement = no true understandingaverage person’s capacity to make judgments is undermined by dismissal of heuristics as unsound

Question 112

Two studies showing the effects of activating public and private awareness

Answer 112

Allen and Jensen 1985 public Scheier and Carver 1977 private

Question 113

Two things to consider for Miller (1984)

Answer 113

Has society (and culture) changed since the study was conducted? If yes, in what way(s)? Consider the reasons why culture can influence individuals’ attributions.

Question 114

Upward social comparison

Answer 114

the other is ‘better’ in a specific domain

Question 115

Van Gyn, Wenger and Gaul (1990) Methods and Findings

Answer 115

two groups of runners: 1. trained on exercise bikes and one didn’t half of each group had to imagine themselves training performance of the ones that imagined themselves training was better evidence of possible influence on the self-concept which led to regulation of behaviour

Question 116

Völkerpsychologie

Answer 116

the collective mind and how people think about society how their thoughts are informed by their surroundings → no individual mind possible as people in large groups start to act more primitively or antisocially after losing their sense of individuality

Question 117

What and by whom is the Elaboration likelihood model ELM

Answer 117

Petty & Cacioppo (1984) Dual process theory of cognitive (thinking) elaboration

Question 118

What are altruism and helping behaviours in contrast to prosocial behaviour

Answer 118

Subcategories of prosocial behaviour whereby helping behaviours are acts that intentionally help others and altruistic acts aim to benefit others at the possible detriment of oneself

Question 119

What are attitudes

Answer 119

Overall positive or negative evaluation or attitude towards a behaviour

Question 120

What are cognitions

Answer 120

thoughts, attitudes, beliefs or states of awareness of behaviour.

Question 121

What are common themes of prejudices and what do they result in

Answer 121

dirty, stupid, insensitive, repulsive, aggressive and psychologically unstable Dehumanisation because they’re not worthy of dignity and respect that can lead to aggression and violence exacerbated when people feel interconnected in a socially satisfactory way because they can then safely dehumanise outgroup members

Question 122

What are critique points of the Robbers Cave study

Answer 122

Artificial situations → applicability of findings Ethical issues: deception to insight conflict that caused physical and possibly psychological harm Generalisability: 12 y/o white boys

Question 123

What are groups?

Answer 123

group of people working towards a common objective that might not include their personal goal but enables an interactive setting

Question 124

What are prosocial behaviours?

Answer 124

Voluntary and intentional acts that are valued positively by society – having positive social consequences and contributing to the physical or psychological well-being of another person.

Question 125

What are stereotypes

Answer 125

Widely shared generalisations about groups that are not static but object to change, that persistent if theyre readily available and seem logical

Question 126

What are subjective norms

Answer 126

perceived social pressure to engage or not to engage in a behaviour

Question 127

What are superordinate goals

Answer 127

Goals that both groups desire but that can be achieved only by both groups cooperating

Question 128

What are the different stages of the Robbers Cave study

Answer 128

1: boys arrived at the camp, and engaged in camp-wide activities, formed friendships.
2: camp was divided into two separated and isolated groups that split up friendships. The groups made little reference to each other apart from some embryonic ethnocentrism

3: groups were brought together to engage in organised intergroup competitions embracing sports contests and other activities. generated competition and intergroup hostility → generalised to situations outside the organised competitions. Ethnocentric attitudes and behaviour were amplified and coupled with intergroup aggression and ingroup solidarity. intergroup encounters => intergroup hostility. Intergroup relations deteriorated so dramatically that two of the experiments were hastily concluded at this stage
4: The two groups were provided with superordinate goals, goals they both desired but were unable to achieve on their own. The groups had to work together in cooperation

Question 129

What are the four criticisms of James-Lange’s theory by Cannon & Bard (1927,1931)?

Answer 129

• Context matters
• How the situation is ‘cognitively assessed’ is important
• The physical arousal triggered by a stimulus can create different emotions (heart pounding: fear, joy)

Question 130

What are the four motivations that influence social cognition?

Answer 130

Self-assessment, self-enhancement, self-verification and the illusion of control

Question 131

What are the functions of attitudes? (Katz, 1960)

Answer 131

• Knowledge
• Instrumentality/Adjustment (means to an end or goal)
• Ego-defence (protecting one’s self-esteem) * Value-expressiveness (allowing people to display values that uniquely identify and define them).

Question 132

What are the implications of this study for our understanding of intergroup competition and reconciliation?

Answer 132

Identifying common goals and intrests → superordinate goals Embryonic ethnocentrism was found in the absence of conflict

Question 133

What are the three branches of theories of aggression

Answer 133

psychodynamic, ethological and biosocial

Question 134

What are the two options when neither favourable nor unfavourable thoughts dominate the cognitive elaboration and information is processed through the peripheral route?

Answer 134

.

Question 135

What are three characteristics of an individualist (as opposed to collectivist) culture?

Answer 135

Directness, uniqueness, promotion of one’s own goals (Markus, Kitayama 1991) p.30/31

Question 136

What are three problems of nudges (Sugden, 2009)?

Answer 136

1. finding out what would make people better off, as judged by themselves.
2. Policies do not correct reasoning failure (quality of decision-making) but use reasoning failure as an attempt to correct the outcomes of that failure.
3. Infringement on autonomy (Refute: simple adjustment of the context in which one can continue to exercise one’s autonomy)

Question 137

What are three types of resistance

Answer 137

forewarning, inoculation and reactance

Question 138

What are two challenges of Cognitive dissonance

Answer 138

Dissonance was not as easy to create as Festinger had outlined Bem’s (1972) self- perception theory may provide a more robust explanation in some cases

Question 139

What contributes to bystander apathy

Answer 139

• Diffusion of responsibility (social loafing): “he’ll do it”
• Fear of social blunders
• Audience inhibition
• Social influence: other people’s passivity correlated to one’s own

Question 140

What did Doll & Ajzen (1992) find (3) on the consistency between attitude behaviour?

Answer 140

Consistency is best when attitude is accessible expressed publiclyThe attitude holder identifies with a group for which the attitude is normative

Question 141

What did Strack, Martin and Stepper (1988) do their empirical research on?

Answer 141

Pen between teeth (vs lips) = cartoons are deemed funnier (facial feedback hypothesis)

Question 142

What did Tafjel (1971) find

Answer 142

• Children strongly favoured their ingroup (social-categorisation)
• Ingroup members were favoured even when there’s no personal gain, less opportunity to identify with other members of the group, the group members being selected randomly

Question 143

What does FAE not help us with?

Answer 143

1. doesn’t help us understand the relative strength of dispositional vs. external factors that lead to observable behaviours
2. we cannot know the true influence of someone’s disposition vs. their situation and to what degree they each played a role in the displayed behaviour. However, we can predict the FAE of others

Question 144

What does HARKing stand for?

Answer 144

HARKing involves presenting a hypothesis (which had been formed based on what the study’s results show) in one’s research report as if it were, in fact, an a priori hypothesis (had been thought of before conducting the research). This practice can lead to misleading outcomes. To maximise transparency in light of HARKing, some researchers now publish a protocol paper of their intended research before they collect data, which outlines the research they plan to conduct, and the hypotheses they hold, before actually conducting it.

Question 145

What does the Behavioural theory of rational choice claim?

Answer 145

bounded rationality => limited computational ability + short-term memory and selective perception Homo Sapiens= settle for satisficing methods instead of maximum utility or optimisation

Question 146

What historical event has had a great impact on social psychology?

Answer 146

The holocaust. It was a really poignant example for social influence and conformity, social loafing, bystander intervention → general impact on the study of antisocial behaviours which is counter-measured by positive psych

Question 147

What implementation intentions

Answer 147

specific action steps make the possibility of following through with an action more probable

Question 148

What is a bias

Answer 148

They result from heuristics that cause incorrect judgments which we consequently become drawn to under certain circumstances

Question 149

What is a heuristic?

Answer 149

“…a simple procedure (cognitive shortcut) that helps find adequate, though often imperfect, answers to difficult questions. The word comes from the same root as eureka.” (Kahneman, 2011)

Question 150

What is a Nudge, according to Hausman & Welch (2010) and Thaler & Sunstein (2008)?

Answer 150

• intentional intervention enacted by one party systematically to influence the choice of another party (Hausman & Welch, 2010).
• behavioural policy interventions that could alter people’s behaviour in a predictable way without forbidding any options or significantly changing their economic incentives. To count as a mere nudge, the intervention must be easy and cheap to avoid (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008).

Question 151

What is Billig’s (1996) principle to keep in mind when learning about social psychology?

Answer 151

Every argument (or conclusion) you read in social psychology should be considered against the possibility of its opposite (or alternative).

Question 152

What is Choice Architecture?

Answer 152

decisions we make are affected by the layout / sequencing / and range of choices that are available.

Question 153

What is cognitive consistency theory?

Answer 153

people try to maintain internal consistency, order and agreement among their various cognitions.

Question 154

What is cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957)

Answer 154

an unpleasant state of psychological tension generated when a person has two or more cognitions that are inconsistent or do not fit together.

Question 155

What is compliance

Answer 155

Superficial, public and transitory change in behaviour and expressed attitudes in response to requests, coercion or group pressure

Question 156

What is conformity

Answer 156

includes a change in behaviour and a change in beliefs or attitudes needs to be response to a majority →hard to track with Asch

Question 157

What is Deindividuation

Answer 157

Process whereby people lose their sense of socialised individual identity and engage in unsocialised, often antisocial, behaviours (Festinger, Pepitone, Newcomb 1952)

Question 158

What is empathy

Answer 158

Ability to feel another person’s experiences; identifying with and experiencing another person’s emotions, thoughts and attitudes.

Question 159

What is forewarning

Answer 159

the act of notifying someone of persuasive efforts before undertaking them

Question 160

What is group polarisation

Answer 160

tendency for a group to produce decicisions that are more extreme than the previously presented average of individual opinions

Question 161

What is groupthink

Answer 161

group decision making that leads to poor decisions because the need for group harmony is stronger than the need to make rational decisions

Question 162

What is important about nudges?

Answer 162

Choice architecture already in place, no context vacuumCannot escape status quo/default Marketing tactics nudge us all the time Measurable efficacy – it seems to workWhat’s the alternative?

Question 163

What is inoculation

Answer 163

form of protection initiated by exposing a person to a weakened counter-attitudinal argument.

Question 164

What is Libertarian Paternalism?

Answer 164

a policy is paternalistic ‘if it tries to influence choices in a way that will make choosers better off, as judged by themselves’

Question 165

What is majority influence

Answer 165

public compliance with majority views with little or no private attitude change due to the desire of fitting in, normative or informational influences

Question 166

What is meant by bystander intervention and what is it influenced by

Answer 166

This occurs when an individual breaks out of the role of a bystander and helps another person in an emergency. Presence of a group because a lone bystander is more likely to help

Question 167

What is minority influence

Answer 167

Social influence processes whereby numerical or power minorities change the attitudes of the majority.

Question 168

What is obedience

Answer 168

can be imposed bz an individual forced compliance

Question 169

What is perceived behavioural control?

Answer 169

perceived knowledge, skills and capacity to perform behaviour

Question 170

What is reactance jack brehnm 1966

Answer 170

A psychological state we experience when someone tries to limit our personal freedom

Question 171

What is risky shift

Answer 171

one person considering capital punishment meets other people who are in favour of capital ⇒ group decisides on capital punishment

Question 172

What is social facilitation?

Answer 172

improvement in performance induced by the real, implied, or imagined presence of others. → co-action and audience effect

Question 173

What is social loafing

Answer 173

decreased group performance because of group workings and diffusion of responsibility

Question 174

What is stereotype lift

Answer 174

members of groups that attract favourable societal stereotypes

Question 175

What is stereotype threat

Answer 175

Feeling that we will be judged and treated in terms of negative stereotypes of our group, and that we will inadvertently confirm these stereotypes through our behaviour Impairs performance and increases anxiety (Steele and Aronson)

Question 176

What is the biosocial or evolutionary psychologist explanation of aggression

Answer 176

Tries to explain sociopsychological behaviour through Darwinian and evolutionary perspectives Aggression is important for survival of the species- potentially increases resources kin-selction and so on

Question 177

What is the bystander effect

Answer 177

People are less likely to help in an emergency when they are with others than when alone. The greater the number, the less likely it is that anyone will help.

Question 178

What is the Bystander-calculus model

Answer 178

• In attending to an emergency, the bystander calculates the perceived costs and benefits of providing help compared with those associated with not helping.
• physiological arousal:
• The greater the arousal, the greater the chance that we will help.
• e.g. the quicker our heartbeat, the quicker we respond (Gaertner & Dovidio, 1977).
• Labelling the arousal as an emotion
• Evaluating the costs of helping against the plight of the victims

Question 179

What is the catharsis hypothesis

Answer 179

notion that acting aggressively, or even just viewing aggressive material, reduces feelings of anger and aggression

Question 180

What is the central premise of multiple role theory?

Answer 180

Research findings indicate that having multiple social roles increases individual wellbeing. However, the quality, rather than quantity, of roles may be an influencing factor, and roles that create identities which are perceived as misaligned (butcher and animal advocate) can cause distress.

Question 181

What is the difference between social psychology and sociology?

Answer 181

Sociology is focused on behaviour at a group or cultural level, whereas social psychology is interested in the individual’s behaviour within such a group. p.36

Question 182

What is the ethnological explanation of aggression

Answer 182

a. Potential for Aggression, is instinctual but aggressive behaviour is elicited by the environmental stimuli = releasers

Question 183

What is the intention-behaviour gap

Answer 183

illustrates how attitudes can be a poor predictor of behaviour become sometimes situational factors override ones attitude (people who care about animals being carnivours) → behaviour is not changed or mantained despite intention

Question 184

What is the minimal group paradigm

Answer 184

Minimal conditions for intergroup behaviour to be ethnocentric and culminate in intergroup conflict or hostility

Question 185

What is the psychodynamic explanation of aggression

Answer 185

Aggression, rooted in the death instinct Thanatos which is opposed to the life instinct Eros, Self-destructive Thanatos is externalised throughout life because of bodily tensions The neo-freudians: viewed aggres- sion as a more rational, but nonetheless innate, process, whereby people sought a healthy release for primitive survival instincts that are basic to all animal species

Question 186

What is the relationship between basic and applied research in social psychology?

Answer 186

Findings from basic research can be subsequently applied to a real-world problem of interest or concern to society in applied research.

Question 187

What is the replication crisis?

Answer 187

The discovery that findings that were long thought to be robust in social psychology (and other branches of psychology) have been shown to be difficult to reproduce in replication studies. (ego depletion, social priming)

Question 188

What is the result of the Sherif Field Experiment 1966

Answer 188

prejudice, discrimination and ethocentrism arose as a result of intergroup conflict that was realintergroup relations were gradually improved through cooperative intergroup relations centred around superordinate goalsless frustrated groups (winners) was more aggressive

Question 189

What is the Robbers Cave study (1966)

Answer 189

study on intergroup dynamics and groundwork for realistic conflict theory

Question 190

What is the theory of reasoned action

Answer 190

behaviour is performed if a person’s attitude and said action is favourable so a specific attitude has normative support which predicts the intention to act

Question 191

What neuroimaging tool has been particularly beneficial over the last 20 years, and integral to the growth of social cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 191

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) produces brain scan images -> researches in social cognitive neuroscience to closely examine changes in brain activity before, during or after people experience phenomena of interest in social psychology. fMRI has also revealed that brain regions function as highly interconnected network of activity, and it is difficult to attribute complex social psychological behaviours/thoughts (i.e. social rejection, prejudice) entirely to one specific brain area.

Question 192

What traditions existed and what was their distinguishing factor?

Answer 192

German tradition: focused on the ‘collective mind’ without any concrete empirical methods in place to test theories American tradition: proposed in Floyd Allport’s publication, inspired by the growth of experimental psychology in the USA

Question 193

What was Schachter & Singers’ starting assumption in their theory of emotion?

Answer 193

Emotions are determined jointly by perception of physiology (as in James-Lange) AND cognitive assessment of the situation

Question 194

What was the hypothesis of Schachter & Singer’s (1962) study

Answer 194

Irritating context vs. humorous context = anger vs. euphoria

Question 195

What’s the common definition for social psychology?

Answer 195

Social psychology is the scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others (Allport, 1956)

Question 196

What’s the frustration-aggression hypothesis by Dollard?

Answer 196

simplistic and circular explanation of how aggression is caused by a frustrating event whereby frustration is loosely defined

Question 197

What’s the objective of libertarian paternalism

Answer 197

‘balance the extent to which we believe people actually fail to make adequate judgements in their own interests, and how much we are willing to restrict people’s (perceived) autonomy, against the amount of good which can be promoted or harm prevented as a result’.

Question 198

When does a nudge become a push?

Answer 198

When the possibility of choice is removed

Question 199

When is an act truly altruistic (Batson, Duncan, Ackerman, Buckley, & Birch, 1981)

Answer 199

act is truly altruistic only if people seek to help even when they will no longer be troubled by observing the suffering of another person (e.g. turning back to help after pass- ing a stranded motorist). This invites a different perspective on the Genovese case. The bystanders felt disturbed, but not enough to act: perhaps they could not identify with the victim Probably occurs in situations easy to escape

Question 200

When is public self-awareness helpful to individuals and society?

Answer 200

• may prepare to perform better at a public event because they know others will be evaluating them.
• follow social norms that are in the collective interest to adhere to (i.e. not listening to loud music on public transport).

Question 201

Where does cognitive dissonance follow from in Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) experiment

Answer 201

Dissonance follows from the fact that you have agreed to say things about what you have experienced when you know that the opposite is true. You have been induced to behave in a counter-attitudinal way

Question 202

Which one of the following statements does NOT describe research on self-schemas by Markus (1977):

a) Identifying as self-schematic on words related to a trait increases the speed of association with words related to that trait in a reaction time task

b) Being self-schematic on one dimension (of independence or dependence) increases the ability to remember autobiographical memories showing this dimension

c) Participants identifying as aschematic on dimensions of independence and dependence were slower to accurately categorise words related to both dimensions in a reaction time task

d) A person who identifies as self-schematic on introversion can use this self-awareness to be more extraverted in social contexts

Answer 202

d

Question 203

Which one of these aspects (approachable, optimistic, cynical, ethical) would a person rate themselves more poorly on, in comparison to a rating they would give to an average person?

Answer 203

a person would rate themself more negatively on the attribute of being cynical since it is a negative attribute in comparison to the other options that are generally more positive and due to the above-average-effect (pp.137) people rend to rate themselves higher on positive attributes and lower on negative attributes

Question 204

Which three invisible factors can threaten the validity of theory and research?

Answer 204

Incentives, the file-drawer problem/ publication bias, biases.

Question 205

Who argued for the separation of Social Psychology from what, when and why?

Answer 205

It was Floyd Allport’s publication from 1924 which truly set a distinction as he argued the use of experimental science could act as an distinction of SP from the other disciplines.

Question 206

Who presented approaches crowd behaviour?

Answer 206

McDoughall, Freud, LeBon

Question 207

Why is having an attitude useful?

Answer 207

Because we orient towards the attitude object and react accordingly, as long as the attitude is easily accessible.

Question 208

Why is the concept of catharsis rejected Bushman, Baumeister and Stack (1999)

Answer 208

Bushman, Baumeister and Stack (1999) found that those who hit a punching bag, believing that it reduced stress, were more likely later to punish someone who had transgressed against them

Question 209

Who are the fathers of social psychology?

Answer 209

• German: Immanuel Kant, Willhelm von Humbolt, Johann Friedrich Herbart
• British: David Hume and Adam Smith
• French: Auguste Comte

Question 210

What can be said at large about the “fathers of psychology” when it comes to social psychology?

Answer 210

Though Humes and Smiths’ publications are also very crucial to the field, it is mostly Herbart and, even more frequently, Comte who have been dubbed as the fathers of Social Psychology.

Question 211

Ultimate Attribution Bias was proposed by?

Answer 211

Pettigrew (1979)

Question 212

Ultimate Attribution Bias proposes that

Answer 212

negative outgroup behaviour is dispositionally attributed, while positive outgroup behaviour is externally attributed to the preservation of an outgroup image.

Question 213

Important theorist behind the concept of self-esteem

Answer 213

Rosenberg (1968)

Question 214

Self-esteem can be defined as?

Answer 214

people’s subjective appraisal of themselves as intrinsically positive or negative

Question 215

Private Self-awareness was proposed by?

Answer 215

Buss (1980)

Question 216

Private self-awareness describes the

Answer 216

psychological state where an individual is aware of the private, personal aspects of the self

Question 217

What do attribution theories describe?

Answer 217

Describe how we attribute causes to our own or other’s behaviour

Question 218

What are the seven main theories of attribution?

Answer 218

1. Naive Psychology Theory
2. Correspondent Inference
3. Attributional Style
4. Covariation Theory
5. Self-Perception Theory
6. Attributional Theory
7. Intergroup Attribution

Question 219

Who’s the theorist behind Intergroup Attribution and what do they propose?

Answer 219

Deschamp (1983) suggests that we assign cause of one’s own or others’ behaviour to group membership

Question 220

Who’s the theorist behind Attributional Theory and what do they propose?

Answer 220

Weiner (1979,1985) proposes that attribution is based on how well people perform on a task

Question 221

Who’s the theorist behind Self-Perception Theory and what do they propose?

Answer 221

Daryl Bem (1967, 1972) suggests we make self-attributions to gain knowledge about ourselves

Question 222

Who’s the theorist behind Covariation Theory and what do they propose?

Answer 222

Harold Kelley (1967) suggests that assigning a cause to behaviour depends on the factor that seemingly covaries the most, to make an internal/dispositional or external/environmental attribution (consistency, distinctiveness, consensus)

Question 223

Who’s the theorist behind Attributional Style and what do they propose?

Answer 223

Rotter (1966) claims the existence of personal pre-dispositions to make a certain type of attribution (Internal vs. External) -> locus of control}}

Question 224

Who’s the theorist behind Correspondence Inference and what do they propose?

Answer 224

Jones and Davis (1965) propose the idea that behaviour corresponds with personality traits, which is how we can infer about it so we can maintain the idea of control and a predictable world

Question 225

Who’s the theorist behind Naive Psychology Theory and what do they propose?

Answer 225

Heider (1958) suggests people use cause-effect analyses in order to understand the world

Question 226

By whom was Fundamental Attribution Error proposed?

Answer 226

Ross (1977)

Question 227

What does fundamental attribution error describe?

Answer 227

tendency to attribute more internally dispositional causes to other’s behaviour than externally situational causes in others

Question 228

What is fundamental attributon error the basis for?

Answer 228

Ultimate Attribution Bias Pettigrew (1979) focused on outgroup behaviour

Question 229

What are three ways mood regulation and self-esteem relate to each other?

Answer 229

1. Individuals with lower levels of self-esteem are less likely to make the effort to make themselves feel better (Heimpel et al. 2002)
2. lower self-esteem is likely to downplay the positive feelings they experienced when recalling positive life events (Wood et al., 2003)
3. tendency to make themselves feel less positive and distract themselves from the positive feelings. (Wood et al., 2003)

p.78

Question 230

How do mortality salience and self-esteem relate to each other?

Answer 230

• against the anxiety of death, individuals collaborate to construct a cultural worldview -> impart meaning, permanence and stability to life
• agreed standards => may be evaluated & alignment with standards of value = hope of transcending death (literally or symbolically)
• terror management theory: self-esteem through sociometer theory
• self-esteem is a tremendous buffer

p.79

Question 231

Who proposed impression management?

Answer 231

Goffman (1959)

Question 232

What does impression management describe?

Answer 232

active process of self-presentation, which consists of taking steps to monitor their presentation of self in their interactions with others so that they appear to others in the best possible

Question 233

On what do individualist cultures focus on to what effect on relationships?

Answer 233

individuality of each person → social relationships are voluntary

Question 234

Which are valued aspects of individualist cultures?

Answer 234

• uniqueness
• expressing one’s own views
• promotion of one’s own goals
• directness

Question 235

Key difference between Emotion and Mood?

Answer 235

• Emotion: Short in duration, intense, clear target
• Mood: long in duration, subliminal, no clear direction

Question 236

Who proposed the Actor-Observer Effect, and what is it an extension of?

Answer 236

Jones and Nisbett (1972) proposed it as an extension of correspondence bias

Question 237

What does the Actor-Observer Effect describe?

Answer 237

tendency to attribute others’ behaviour internally to dispositional factors (observer) and one’s own to external factors (actor)

Question 238

What is the role of perceptual focus in the Actor-Observer Effect?

Answer 238

Actors can’t see themselves behaving

Question 239

What is the role of informational difference in the Actor-Observer Effect?

Answer 239

actors tend to have a wealth of information enabling them to make external attributions

Question 240

What does the Covariation model describe?

Answer 240

Question 241

What are collectivist cultures characterised by?

Answer 241

social interactions with each other, social beings who are inseparably connected to others

Question 242

What implication does the characterisation of collectivist cultures have on relationships?

Answer 242

social interactions are involuntary and vital as they make the person what they are

Question 243

What is valued in collectivist cultures?

Answer 243

1. belonging
2. being aware of other’s views
3. indirectness

Question 244

What are biases (Fiske & Taylor 2013)?

Answer 244

systematic errors in our rational thinking, perception and attitudes

Question 245

What is a different way to define biases?

Answer 245

adaptive characteristics of ordinary, everyday social perception

Question 246

By whom was confirmation bias coined?

Answer 246

Trope & Thompson, 1997

Question 247

What is confirmation bias?

Answer 247

the tendency to seek, interpret, create information that confirms existing ideas, explanations for the cause of an event

Question 248

Moderation describes?

Answer 248

a relationship between two variables depending on the level of a third variable.

Question 249

What are five strengths of the theory of planned behaviour?

Answer 249

1. continuing heuristic value
2. more or less consistent predictions of the likelihood of behaviour based on PBC and intentions
3. when enough variables are added –> good predictive validity
4. considers behaviour-cognition feedback loops
5. useful framework for interventions

Question 250

What are common criticisms of the theory of planned behaviour?

Answer 250

1. incomplete account of intentional variance
2. no actual techniques for effective attitudinal change
3. inconsiderate of unconscious influences and emotions
4. limited predictive validity (people who set intentions but fail)
5. potentially undervalues age, SES, mental health & identity effects

Question 251

How has the TPB criticism of it being inconsiderate of unconscious influences and emotions been countered?

Answer 251

unconscious influences are considered as they flow through subjective norm, attitudes and perceived control

Question 252

How has the TPB’s criticism of not providing strategies to produce effective change in beliefs been countered?

Answer 252

the goal is to predict and explain, not to be prescriptive

Question 253

According to the Yale approach to communication and persuasion, through which processes can people be persuaded?\

Answer 253

attention, comprehension and acceptance

Question 254

According to the Yale approach to communication and persuasion, which factors are crucial for persuasion?

Answer 254

message, source, audience

Question 255

According to the Yale approach to communication and persuasion, what are the possible changes persuasive communication can produce?

Answer 255

opinion, perception, affect or action change

Question 256

What did Markus (1977) find?

Answer 256

Question 257

What five components of the audience affect persuasive communication?

Answer 257

1. Persuasibility
2. Initial position
3. Intelligence
4. Self-esteem
5. Personality

Question 258

What five components of the source affect persuasive communication?

Answer 258

1. Expertise
2. Trustworthiness
3. Likeability
4. Status
5. Race

Question 259

What four components of the source affect persuasive communication?

Answer 259

1. Order of arguments
2. one- or two-sided arguments
3. Type of appeal
4. explicit vs implicit conclusion

Question 260

What did Jones and Harris (1967) find?

Answer 260

Question 261

What are the dimensions in Weiner’s Task Performance Attribution (1979)?

Answer 261

Whether Control or Lack of control are internal/external and stable/unstable

Question 262

What does stability mean in Weiner’s Task Performance Attribution (1979)?

Answer 262

is the internal/external cause stable/unstable?

Question 263

What does locus mean in Weiner’s Task Performance Attribution (1979)?

Answer 263

performance is caused (internally) by the actor or (externally) by the situation

Question 264

In Weiner’s Task Performance Attribution/ Attributional Theory (1979), what happens if someone deems something permanently within their control?

Answer 264

They show typical effort towards it

Question 265

In Weiner’s Task Performance Attribution/ Attributional Theory (1979), what happens if someone deems something changing and outside their control?

Answer 265

They rely on luck

Question 266

What was the conclusion of Scheier and Carver (1977)?

Answer 266

a person being in a positive/negative mood impacts the focus of their self-reflection and thus furthering the current feeling of positivity/negativity

Question 267

What was the Wilson and Ross (2001) study on, and what was their conclusion?

Answer 267

Temporal comparison: People create disadvantaged past selves for temporal downward comparison

Question 268

What is the central route governed by?

Answer 268

motivation and ability

Question 269

What is the peripheral route?

Answer 269

the “lazy” route through which attitude change is temporary and less likely to predict future behaviour

Question 270

What is the central route?

Answer 270

route where information is cognitively elaborated/ analysed to produce attitude change that is likely enduring and predictive

Question 271

What is someone with an interdependent self-construal likely pursuing?

Answer 271

self-critical self-improvement

Question 272

What is an independent self-construal, and when are they common?

Answer 272

Question 273

What is an interdependent self-construal, and when are they common?

Answer 273

Question 274

What is someone with an independent self-construal likely pursuing?

Answer 274

positive and unique self-identification and strive for self-enhancement

Question 275

What is a self-construal?

Answer 275

self-concept

Question 276

What was Miller (1984) about, and what was the conclusion?

Answer 276

• Compared 4 age groups of Indian and Americans who narrated prosocial and antisocial behaviour and gave theoir spontaneous explanations
• Miller coded the responses
• In western cultures: more internal attributions with increasing age

Question 277

What are possible goals in realistic conflict theory (Sherif, 1966)?

Answer 277

Shared goals or mutually exclusive goals

Question 278

What do shared goals require (Sherif, 1966)?

Answer 278

cooperation of groups

Question 279

What is realistic conflict theory (Sherif, 1966)?

Answer 279

goal relations between individuals and groups determine cooperation or competition between groups and thus, interpersonal and intergroup behaviour

Question 280

How would an interpersonal relationship go if there were shared goals?

Answer 280

Question 281

How would an intergroup relationship go if there were shared goals?

Answer 281

Question 282

How would an intergroup relationship go if there were mutually exclusive goals?

Answer 282

Question 283

How would an interpersonal relationship go if there were mutually exclusive goals?

Answer 283

Question 284

How can the depersonalised effects of social identity theory that might cause identity fusion and aggressive behaviour be avoided with social mobility?

Answer 284

individual mobility, aka. assimilating into the high-status group

Question 285

How can the depersonalised effects of social identity theory that might cause identity fusion and aggressive behaviour be avoided with social change when there are no present cognitive alternatives?

Answer 285

social creativity

Question 286

What are three tactics specific to social creativity?

Answer 286

1. Redefining value of existing dimensions
2. Comparing to different outgroups
3. Creating new dimension of intergroup comparison

Question 287

How can the depersonalised effects of social identity theory that might cause identity fusion and aggressive behaviour be avoided with social change when there are present cognitive alternatives?

Answer 287

social competition

Question 288

What are tactics used when someone is trying to improve social identity with social competition?

Answer 288

civil rights activity, political lobbying, terrorism, war

Question 289

How are groups defined in social identity theory and realistic conflict theory?

Answer 289

• SIT: groups as manifestations of social categories
• RCT: groups as collectives working towards shared goals

Question 290

Where does conflict originate in social identity theory and realistic conflict theory?

Answer 290

• SIT: desire to feel positive about ingroup compared to outgroup
• RCT: competition due to limited resources

Question 291

What is the most important resource in social identity theory and realistic conflict theory?

Answer 291

• SIT: symbols of importance
• RCT: material or political power

Question 292

What is the group’s goal in social identity theory and realistic conflict theory?

Answer 292

• SIT: relative superiority
• RCT: absolute resources and superiority

Question 293

What is the individual’s goal in social identity theory and realistic conflict theory?

Answer 293

• SIT: self-esteem, understanding oneself, meaning
• RCT: material security, belonging to group

Question 294

What was Schwartz’s (1991) study about ?

Answer 294

• participants asked to recall 6 vs. 12 assertive or friendly
• some only had to do 6 vs 6
• participants saw themselves as less assertive/friendly after listing 12 because too many to remember (availability bias and attributional processes)

Question 295

What happened when participants were told that other (imaginary) participants struggled more or less (Schwartz, 1991)

Answer 295

-> changed their previous opinion