PL1025: Learning, Personality & Intelligence

Question 1

What is personality according to Gordon Allport (1961)?

Answer 1

internal dynamic organisation of psychophysical systems that produce behavioural, emotional and cognitive patterns

Question 2

What is the psychoanalytic approach to personality

Answer 2

psychoanalytic approach to personality was developed by Sigmund Freud. It is a clinically derived theory based on case studies of patients and Freud’s introspection about his own behaviour. The theory postulates that most of our behaviour is driven by unconscious motives

Question 3

Which aspect of Stenberg intelligence matches thinking quickly?

Answer 3

Fluid Thought

Question 4

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches demonstrating a good vocabulary?

Answer 4

verbal ability

Question 5

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to converse on almost any topic?

Answer 5

verbal ability

Question 6

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to recognise similarities and differences?

Answer 6

intellectual balance and integration

Question 7

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to understand and interpret his or her environment ?

Answer 7

contextual intelligence

Question 8

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to make connections and distinctions between ideas and things?

Answer 8

intellectual balance and integration

Question 9

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to have a thorough grasp of mathematics?

Answer 9

goal orientation and attainment

Question 10

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to have a thorough grasp of correct and incorrect answers?

Answer 10

practical problem solving ability

Question 11

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to see attainable goals and accomplish them?

Answer 11

→ practical problem-solving ability

Question 12

What is the difference between Spearman’s and Thurstone’s G

Answer 12

Thurstone argued ‘g’ is a result of seven primary mental abilities. Spearman, on the other hand, argued that ‘g’ resulted in all aspects of intelligence.

Question 13

Summarise the history of intelligence testing

Answer 13

Sir Francis –> Simon-Binet and the French Government –> Stanford-Binet (Terman) –> G (Spearman) Raven’s -> WSIC, WAIS–> Thurstone and Cattell’s interpretations of G –> Gardner’s 9 Intelligences –> Stenberg’s Laytheories

Question 14

Which tests and intelligence concepts are culture-bound, and which ones are more general?

Answer 14

• Culture bound: WSIC, WAIS
• General: Raven

Question 15

What is IQ deviation

Answer 15

(test score/ expected age score)*100 how much you deviated from the average IQ of 100

Question 16

What do Western cultures emphasise about Intelligence according to Stenberg (1981)?

Answer 16

speed of mental processing and the ability to gather, assimilate and sort information

Question 17

What do studies comparing cultural ideals of intelligence show?

Answer 17

Western views of intelligence highlight the individual’s cognitive skills and memory while eastern societies extend these qualities onto an individual’s social environment, understanding of how to navigate culture

Question 18

How would an application of Simon-Binet’s concept of intelligence look

Answer 18

Recommended reading ages for books because they present a comparison of what abilities children of a specific age group should have

Question 19

Why was the Standford-Binet scale better than the Binet-Simon scale?

Answer 19

Because its bigger sample size made for more representative results (N=50 < N>1000)

Question 20

What is Spearman’s model of intelligence referred to?

Answer 20

Two-factor model

Question 21

What’s the key takeaway about categorisation

Answer 21

may not be a single process, and different kinds of categorization may lend themselves to different theoretical treatments.

Question 22

SEMANTIC KNOWLEDGE

Answer 22

Knowledge about objects and their properties, and of relationships between and among them, including knowledge of word meanings. General encyclopaedic knowledge is sometimes also included.

Question 23

TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY

Answer 23

A structured set of concepts linked together with class-inclusion relationships.

Question 24

How does taxonomic hierarchies relate to semantic dementia and semantic development

Answer 24

Children and dementia patients work in opposite directions one expanding on the superordinate concepts and the other losing the specific concepts

Question 25

Category

Answer 25

A set of objects in the world that can be grouped together

Question 26

Categorisation:

Answer 26

Process of placing concepts into groups called categories, based on their characteristic features

Question 27

Concept

Answer 27

A mental representation of a category, used for a variety of cognitive functions including memory, reasoning, and using language. A classical view is that concepts provide definitions of their corresponding category.

Question 28

What is similarity?

Answer 28

The degree to which features/elements of an object or stimulus ‘match’ one another (Braisby & Gellatly, 2012).

Question 29

What is typicality?

Answer 29

The degree to which an object or stimulus is the best or most representative example of a category or concept

Question 30

INTERNAL REPRESENTATION

Answer 30

In a PDP network , a pattern of activity that arises across a layerof hidden units. When a network is presented with a given input, the pattern of activity arising across its hidden layer is the internal representation of that input.

*See The Connectionist approach slides in Topic 7

Question 31

HIDDEN UNITS

Answer 31

Hidden and theoretical gateways between input and output that represent differentiated partterns of activation

Question 32

Parallel Distributing Processing (PDP) framework

Answer 32

the brain does not function in a series of activities but rather performs a range of activities at the same time, parallel to each other.

Question 33

propagation of activation

Answer 33

Semantic information is not stored as such but instead is reconstructed in response to probes in a process called pattern completion.

Question 34

Which approach is Jung’s model of personality rooted in?

Answer 34

psychodynamic

Question 35

Which dimensions are part of Jung’s model of personality?

Answer 35

• extra/introversion
• sensing/ thinking
• feeling/ intuition

Basis for the Myers-Briggs indicator

Question 36

What is the context of Jung’s model of personality rooted in?

Answer 36

Aim to combine Freud and Adler’s theories because people both incorporated extraverted and introverted components

Question 37

Which approach is the five-factor model rooted in?

Answer 37

trait approach and factor analytic approach

Question 38

What dimensions of personality are a part of the five-factor model?

Answer 38

• openness
• conscientiousness
• extraversion
• agreeableness
• neuroticism

OCEAN

Question 39

What role did the lexical approach play in OCEAN?

Answer 39

Allport assumed that important personality descriptors were linguistically encoded and indicated by frequent use

Question 40

To which effect was factor analysis used in the development of the five-factor model?

Answer 40

Cattell used a factor analysis to group and reduce the list of personality traits based on participants’ ratings on the degree to which words applied to them. This led to 16 personality factors

Question 41

Which role do Costa and McCrae take on in the five-factor model?

Answer 41

they had participants complete two questionnaires and used the results to reduce the 16 factors to 5 factors/traits

Question 42

What is Eysenck and Gray’s model rooted in?

Answer 42

trait approach, biological approach

Question 43

How do Eysenck and Gray describe extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism?

Answer 43

• sensation-seeking, sociable and assertive
• tense, anxious, moody, irrational
• impulsive, aggressive, antisocial, creative

Question 44

What is highlighted in Eysenck’s model of personality?

Answer 44

the importance of genes, biological determinants of personality, neural causes of extraversion, neuroticism

Question 45

What does ARAS signify?

Answer 45

Ascending Reticular Activating System

Question 46

Which statement accurately describes the relationship between the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) and extraversion?

a) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit manifests in extraversion.
b) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit extraversion.
c) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit introversion.
d) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit introversion.

Answer 46

b

Question 47

Which statement accurately describes the relationship between the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) and neuroticism?

a) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit manifests in neurotic behaviour.
b) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit calmness.
c) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit neurotic behaviour.
d) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit neurotic behaviour.

Answer 47

c

Question 48

How does Eysenck explain extraversion and introversion?

Answer 48

Extraverted: underaroused reticulo-cortical circuit leads to sensation seeking
Introverted: overaroused reticulo-cortical circuit leads to avoidance of stimulating situations

Question 49

How does Eysenck explain extraversion and neuroticism?

Answer 49

• Overarousal of reticulo-limbic circuit: low threshold for emotional stability and easy emotional arousal neuroticism
• Underarousal of reticulo-limbic circuit: emotional stability

Question 50

How is Gray’s BAS/BIS theory a modifaction of Eysenck’s ARAS?

Answer 50

• personality is the result of variations in the behavioural approach system (BAS), behavioural inhibition system (BIS) and fight-flight system

Question 51

What does overactivity in the BAS lead to and why?

Answer 51

motivates to seek rewards –> impulsivity

Question 52

What does an overactive BIS lead to and why?

Answer 52

anxiety because it motivates to avoid and be sensitive to punishment

Question 53

What is the main criticsim of Jung’s model of personality?

Answer 53

• incomplete account of how personality develops
• unclear, not parsimonious explanation
• low reliability and difficult to test but there are multiple tests
• large heuristic value

Question 54

What is the main criticsim of Eysenck and Gray’s model of personality?

Answer 54

• validity of biological claims: weak relationship between arousal measured by EEG and neuroticsm (Mathhews & Gilliand, 1999)
• psychoticism precise enough to be measurable?
• are three factors comprehensive enough to describe personality?

Question 55

What is the main criticsim of the five-factor model of personality?

Answer 55

• atheoretical and data driven but syill aims to explain
• validity of lexical approach
• representativeness of the traits
• personality trait measures statistically account for 10% of variance in observed behaviour so how comprehensive is the theory really (Mischel, 1968)

Question 56

How can theory be evaluated using the acronym DEEPCHAT

Answer 56

• Description: simplify, clarify or identify important issues
• Explanation: help understand why behaviour
• Empirical Validity: generating predictions that can be empirically tested
• Parsimony: few use of terms of the explanatory concepts included
• Comprehensiveness: breadth of a theory (e.g. explaining normal & abnormal behaviour
• Heuristic Value: stimulate new research?
• Applied Value: practical usefulness in a wider context -> beneficial changes
• Testable Concepts: ability to operationalise concepts of a theory -> reliably measurable?

Question 57

Trait

Answer 57

fundamental units of personality representing dispositional responses conditional probability of a category of behaviours in a category of context (Mischel, 1999)

Question 58

Lexical Approach

Answer 58

produce descriptive models of personality traits (no explanation) based on lexical hypothesis: differences in personality are important for social interaction so they have been assigned lables that are used in varying frequency and abundace which denotes the cultural relevancy

Question 59

Eysenck Psychopathy vs. Neuroticism

Answer 59

difference in serverity: antisocial behaviour + high self-esteem vs. emotional unstability

Question 60

Who facilitated the change from categorical types into trait dimensions?

Answer 60

Wilhelm Wundt (1874) when he revisted the four temperaments and reorganised them into dimensions (unchangable/changable, emotional/unemotional)

Question 61

The strength and problem of biological theories of personality

Answer 61

usage of important psychological mechanisms vs. lack of consistent evidence (more assumed importance and oversimplification of ARAS, BAS/BIS)

Question 62

psychodynamic approach

Answer 62

theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly unconscious between the different structures of the personality Jungian (Follower of Freud; applies to psychoanalysis too)

Question 63

biological approach

Answer 63

assumes that biological factors influence our behavior and mental well-being in a cause-and-effect include genes, influence one is predisposed to some conditions, CNS rely on empirical findings (experiments, falsibility) meaning they are provable opposed to psychodynamic approaches

Question 64

factor analytic approach?

Answer 64

used to regroup variables into a limited set of clusters, known as factors.

Question 65

In reference to personality, what is a psychological construct?

Answer 65

A mental concept that influences behaviour via the mind-body interaction.

Question 66

In considering the five-factor model of personality, Jung’s model of personality, and Eysenck & Gray’s model of personality, which one can be considered the LEAST parsimonious?

Answer 66

Jung’s model of personality describes such a wide range of structures within personality, many with overlapping functions and it is unclear how they relate

Question 67

What assumption is the nomothetic approach based upon?

Answer 67

The nomothetic approach is based upon the assumption that there is a finite set of variables in existence that can be used to describe human personality.

Question 68

Unobservable aspects of personality include such things as:

Answer 68

Thoughts, memories and dreams

Question 69

Which of the following statements best defines factor analysis?

Answer 69

It is a multivariate data reduction statistical technique

Question 70

Which statement is true?
a. Personality theorists (e.g. Jung, Freud) hold the assumption than individuals are inherently individualist
b. Personality theories transcend cultural contexts
c. Personality theory in psychology places the concept of The Self at the core of its theorising
d. Classic personality theorists were Western white men, who likely held the prevailing societal attitudes, biases, and prejudices of their time

Answer 70

A., C., D.

Question 71

According to Eysenck’s biological model of personality, how does performance/ an emotional state change depending on levels of arousal?

Answer 71

Question 72

I like to dabble with with both a trait approach and biological approach….second clue is I invented the Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS) toexplain that variations in extraversion and neuroticism are due to balancing excitatory and inhibitory mechanisms .

Answer 72

Eysenck

Question 73

I’m a fan of Factor analysis and some might say I’m the sweet-16 guy…The second clue is Allport left me a lot of traits to work with.

Answer 73

Cattell

Question 74

I decided to modify Eysenck’s work and like the biological approach….second clue is I proposed that personality was based on the interaction between 3different systems in the brain.

Answer 74

Gray

Question 75

Maybe Galton was right, and the the secret to personality lies in the dictionary, count the synonyms that describe a personality trait!…..The second clue is,I put a lot of effort into analysing 18000 words related to personality….

Answer 75

Allport

Question 76

I am a fan of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler’s work…..second clue is that a widely used personality inventory was developed by two women inspired bymy work.

Answer 76

Jung

Question 77

Who’s part of the The Five Factor model evolution team?

Answer 77

Allport,Cattell, Costa & McCrae

Question 78

What is the context of the Implicit Theories?

Answer 78

innate interest and relevance to daily life

Question 79

Who’s the theorist behind the implicit theory of intelligence?

Answer 79

R.J. Stenberg (2001)

Question 80

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the Binet-Simon Scale?

Answer 80

French Ministry of Public Instruction commissioned him to provide techniques to predict children’s success and which ones require special education (Simon & Binet, 1905)

Question 81

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the Stanford-Binet Scale?

Answer 81

Binet-Simon testing used on Californian children → age norms didn’t fit (Terman, 1916)

Question 82

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the theory of General Intelligence

Answer 82

wanting to set out to estimate the intelligence of children in his area (Spearman, 1904/1927)

Question 83

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the Multifactor Theory ?

Answer 83

“Spearman didn’t prove his idea of g” (Thurstone)

Question 84

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the theory of Fluid and Crystallised Intelligence ?

Answer 84

“G has two separate components” (R.B. Cattell)

Question 85

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the theory of Multiple Intelligences

Answer 85

educational psychologist → traditional intelligence testing incomprehensive and not applicable in the educational setting (Gardner, 1983/ 1996)

Question 86

IQ as defined by W. Stern?

Answer 86

(mental age/ biological age)*100

Question 87

G’?

Answer 87

underlying intelligence required for all types = abstract ability to recognise relationships between objects, events, information and make inferences

Question 88

S’?

Answer 88

type of intelligence for specific tasks (vocabulary, mathematical, spatial

Question 89

Fluid vs. Crystallised Intelligence

Answer 89

reasoning and problem solving skills vs. factual knowledge/ stored information

Question 90

Intelligence in Stenberg’s words

Answer 90

layperson’s ideas and conceptualisation of the defining qualities of intelligence

Question 91

Intelligence in Simon and Binet’s terms?

Answer 91

alignment of mental age and developmental age leading to increased or decreased ability to perform daily tasks ranging in difficulty

Question 92

Intelligence in Spearman’s terms?

Answer 92

intelligence is made up of specific abilities and general intelligenceg: (mental energy) ability to see relationships and draw inferences → influences ‘s’

Question 93

Intelligence in Thurstone’s words?

Answer 93

‘G’ results from seven mental abilities

Question 94

Intelligence after Cattell?

Answer 94

‘G’ is made up of an dynamic interaction of crystallised and fluid intelligence whereby represents our factual knowledge and the other problem solving/ critical thinking skills

Question 95

Intelligence in Gardner’s eyes?

Answer 95

intelligence is the sum of processes that can take place different intelligences reside in different parts of the brain (?)

Question 96

Sternberg et al. 1981?

Answer 96

asking one group of people to list behaviours that were characteristic of intelligence, academic intelligence, everyday intelligence or unintelligence, asking another group of people to rate how well each of those behaviours reflected intelligence.

Question 97

What three dimensions of intelligence were found using the findings from this investigation? Sternberg et al. 1981

Answer 97

Verbal ability, Practical Problem-Solving, Social Competence

Question 98

One of the lasting contributions of Binet and Simon’s test is that children’s performance on the test is compared to

Answer 98

How well the child should do at that age The performance of children of the same age

Question 99

Two widely used IQ Tests

Answer 99

Wechsler Tests (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale & Wechsler Scale for Children 1955) Raven’s progressive matrices (1938)

Question 100

Heritability

Answer 100

estimate of the average proportion of variance for any behaviour, thought to be accounted for by genetic factors across the population how far variability in phenotypic variance is attributable to genotypic variance.

Question 101

Twin Studies

Answer 101

possibility of comparing different types of genetic makeup to compare genetic influence because different types of twins share different proportions of genes dizygotic 50% monozygotic 100%

Question 102

Critique of Twin Studies

Answer 102

on their own not insightful potentially because all children share an estimated average of 50 per cent of their genes withtheir parents and their siblings using observation, interview or questionnaire measuresalso presents a problem because similarities betweenpersonalities might be because of environmental influence(e.g. an extraverted son might be like his extraverted father

Question 103

Behavioural Genetics

Answer 103

looks at the relationships between genes, environment and behaviour estimating the extent of genetic heritability of behaviour across a population; stating the genetic heritability of that behaviour in terms of shared variance

Question 104

Additive Assumption

Answer 104

two dimensions that determine heritability: the genetic part and (2) the environment (outdated for genetic heritability) E+G= 100

Question 105

What kicked off the debate and inquiry into the heritability of intelligence?

Answer 105

Sir Francis Galton’s investigation into whether intelligence runs in families (1869 Hereditary Genius). His findings promted him to consider the influence of one’s environment (asked fellow members of the Royal Society about the socioeconomic status of their parents) and suggested that intelligence is governed by the dichotomy of nature vs. nature , which he concluded would be best explored by twin and adoption studies (1875).

Question 106

Genetic Heritability

Answer 106

Assessment of how any extent of phenotypical manifestations in a child are caused by their genetic inheritance

Question 107

Examples for Phenotypes?

Answer 107

physical appearance, behaviour, intelligence, personality, observable/measurable properties

Question 108

H^2 ?

Answer 108

Estimated average of genetic heritability across a population taken from samples of studies^2* (rmz-rdz)

Question 109

What are the three main methods of assessing genetic heritability?

Answer 109

Family Studies, Twin Studies, Adoption Studies Plomin 2004

Question 110

The problem with Family Studies? (2)

Answer 110

Robert Plomin 2004 on their own they tell us very little about g.i. because children are assumed to share an estimated average of 50% with their siblings and parents similarities found using observation, interview or questionnaire mesures might be because of the environmental influence of the parent -> solution twin and adoption studies

Question 111

Family Studies

Answer 111

Researchers examine associations between parental and child behaviour within a family

Question 112

Adoption Studies

Answer 112

possibility of comparing different types of genetic makeup to compare genetic and environmental influence at the same time because different types of twins share different proportions of genes if two twins show similar behaviours despite being raised in different environments = evidence genetic heritability all these studies are considered when examining genetic inheritance

Question 113

What does and doesn’t genetic inheritance refer to?

Answer 113

Heritability estimates doesn’t refer to specific individuals but certain populations of people so MZ, DZ, Family members, parents and children

Question 114

What does a heritability estimate of 50% mean?

Answer 114

it doesn’t mean we inherited this amount from genes but that across a certain population the genetic heritability of a certain trait is estimated at an average of 50%

Question 115

Concordance Rate

Answer 115

probability that a percentage of blood relatives exhibited in a particular trait will/does overlap with other scores in a sample => average of all rates is the heritability estimate

Question 116

Explain h =”font-size:x-small;”>2

Answer 116

In twin studies correlations between MZ are usually twice as high so estimates are derived by doubling the difference in correlations between MZ and DZ

Question 117

Who were behavioural geneticist who commented on the estimation of heritability of personality based on American, Australian and European samples at the end of of the 20th centurary? How high was their estimate?

Answer 117

Plomin (1996) & Riemann and De Raad (1998) estimated a moderate heritability of personality from genetic factors, accounting for between 20 and 50 per cent of phenotypic variance.
| P.199

Question 118

What is the key takeaways from the adoption studies?

Answer 118

correlations for MZ reared apart are greater than for DZ reared together and apart suggests a genetic influence on personality for both extraversion and neuroticism

Question 119

In general, the studies summarised here suggest substantial heritability for genetic influence on personality. Genetic factors can sometimes explain as much X per cent of the variance within the main personality dimensions.

Answer 119

40-50%
|Pedersen et al. (1988) p.200

Question 120

Who brought about the change from additive assumption to heritability estimates?

Answer 120

Authors such as US psychologists E. E. Maccoby (2000) and Plomin (2004), who researched and later critically suggested that the additive principle of determining heritability of personality (or any phenotype) is not applicable any more or even the concept of genetic inheritability all together.

Question 121

What are the two main issues with additive assumption?

Answer 121

1. estimating the environment (E) is usually done without utilising any direct measures of environmental factors. Ex.: researchers often compute genetic heritability, and then subtract that from 100 per cent.
2. when genetic heritability is large, it assumes that all environmental factors associated with that behaviour must be small. It is better to see human person- ality as a joint result of an interaction between the individ- ual’s genes and their environmental factors. Consequently, personality should not be seen as the result of ‘Genetics + Environment’ but rather ‘Genetics × Environment’. For example, it is better to view the relative influences of genes and environment on personality as the result of a long-term interaction, with environmental factors triggering certain genetic behaviours and the effects of the environment differing between individuals because of their genetic makeup.

Question 122

What are the six main considerations in behavioural genetics in terms of personality?

Answer 122

1. Conceptions of heritability and the environment
2. Different types of genetic variance
3. Shared versus non-shared environmental influences
4. The representativeness of twin and adoption studies
5. Assortative mating
6. The changing world of genetics

Question 123

What are the four main considerations in behavioural genetics as far as intelligence is concerned?

Answer 123

1. Conceptions of Heritability
2. Different types or genetic variance
3. The representativeness of twin and adoption studies
4. Assortative Mating

Question 124

Additive genetic variation

Answer 124

genetic variation in behaviour that is the total of the individual’s genes inherited from their parents

Question 125

non-additive genetic variances

Answer 125

dominant genetic variance and epistatic genetic variance or interactive genetic variance

Question 126

Epigenetics

Answer 126

process describing (epi)gene expression resulting from environmental factors that either suppress or activate our dispositions

Question 127

Contingency

Answer 127

the fact that the CS providesinformation about the US’s arrival

Question 128

The Rescorla-Wagner equation is:

Answer 128

ΔV = αβ(λ – ΣV)

Question 129

The Rescorla-Wagner equation is used to predict the

Answer 129

The Rescorla-Wagner model describes the rate of change in associative strength (between stimulusand outcome or response and outcome or stimulus and stimulus) through conditioning.This model focuses on error driven learning.

Question 130

Assumptions of Rescorla-Wagner error prediction model with regard tothe unconditioned stimulus (US)

Answer 130

The effectiveness of US depends on how different it is from what isexpected The amount of learning on a given trial is a function of the surprisevalue of the US (more surprise then more conditioning)

Question 131

What does ΔV mean?

Answer 131

change in associative strength (i.e., the strength of the association between the CS and the US)

Question 132

What does the α value represent

Answer 132

α is the salience of the CS, i.e., how much the CS grabs your attention. E.g., the salience of a brightflashing red light should be higher than the salience of a plain red square. With a strong CS, α shouldapproach 1, but with a weaker stimulus α should tend towards 0.

Question 133

What does β mean?

Answer 133

β is the salience or motivational value of the US, the outcome, e.g., the motivational value of chocolateas a US might be higher than the motivational value of lettuce as a US. The more we desire an outcome,the more we will learn about it.

Question 134

What does the λ mean?

Answer 134

λ is the outcome (the US). This is usually only 1 or 0 – 1 when the outcome or US is present, and 0 whenthe outcome or US is absent.

Question 135

What does ΣV mean?

Answer 135

ΣV is the sum of all the associative strengths of all the stimuli at the beginning of that trial.

Question 136

What is central to the Rescorla-Wagner prediction

Answer 136

role of surprise

Question 137

The strength of a Pavlovian conditioned response (CR) depends upon

Answer 137

the strengthof the connection between internal representations of the CS and the US… theassociative strength of the CS.

Question 138

Cue Competition: the principle of summation

Answer 138

This means that if two cues are trainedin compound, they will compete for associative strength with the pairedoutcome <img></img>

Question 139

Conditioned Inhibition

Answer 139

A conditioned inhibitor is a stimulus that predicts the absence of an outcome.

Question 140

How do you learn that a stimulus predicts the absence of an outcome?

Answer 140

This cannot be established simply by pairing a stimulus with no outcome, as that would just result in nolearning.

Question 141

Extinction Treatment

Answer 141

in a conditioned inhibition paradigm, remove the reward when the stimulus is presented after it’s trained

Question 142

What are the three strengths of the RW model?

Answer 142

1. the equation allows qualitative predictions
2. heuristic value for other associative learning theories
3. helped with understanding numerous psychological processes
   | The model provides a good account of many of the facts of compound conditioning, BUT not all the effects associated with blocking and overshadowing are consistent with it. What are the strengths

Question 143

What are the limitations of the RW model?

Answer 143

1. no adequate account for the role of surprise when blocking is considered
2. no adequate account of extinction
3. inappropriate account for discrimination
4. inhibition is conceptualised as negative associative strength

Question 144

What’s Donald Hebb’s (1949) learning theory

Answer 144

When individual cells are activated at the same time, they establish connecting synapses or strengthen existing onesand thus become a functional unit. These are the structuralbases of memory.

Question 145

Synapse

Answer 145

specialised junction through which neural signals are transmitted from one neuron (the presynaptic neuron) to another (the postsynaptic neuron)

Question 146

Hebbian synapse

Answer 146

increase its effectiveness as a result of simultaneous activity in the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons. Such synapses are essential for many kinds of associative learning.

Question 147

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Answer 147

main form of synaptic plasticity reflecting theactivity of synaptic information storage processes, and has been identified as the likelycellular correlate of learning and memory

Question 148

Explain the principle of LTP

Answer 148

One or more axons connected to a dendrite act as source for stimuli -> sudden and strong stimulation leaves some synapses depolarised/potentiated (more responsive to more stimuli) for varying amount of time

Question 149

What is associativity in long-term potentiation?

Answer 149

The response to axon 2 is initially weak. Briefly pairing it withrapid stimulation in axon 1 strongly depolarizes the dendrite.Afterward, the response to axon 2 (as well as axon 1) is enhanced.

Question 150

How does the biological basis relate to Pavlovian Conditioning?

Answer 150

This relates to learning, as previous experience has led to a long-term change inthe behaviour of the synapse, and it can be argued that this is related to surprise asthis is a result of a ‘burst of intense stimulation’ – a difference in what was expected(i.e. a prediction error).

Question 151

What did Schultz 2007 find on the role of dopamine in learning theory?

Answer 151

dopaminergic neurons exhibitburst activity, also known as ‘phasic activation,’following primary food and liquid rewards and conditioned visual, auditory, and somatosensory reward-predicting stimuli

Question 152

Does dopamine provides a biological signal for an error prediction, therefore providing a biologicalindication for surprise?

Answer 152

no dopamine activity to the CS, because lacking association with the reward outcome or US -> dopaminergic neurons shift towards CS after successive trials -> after dopamine reaction only to CS not to outcome/reward or US

Question 153

Absence of a reward following a blocked stimulus does not induce a neuronal response

Answer 153

When the light, the blocked predictor, was presented with no reward in the test stage, shown asblocking Group A in the table, they saw no dopamine activity Had an association been learnt between the noise and the light, we would expect to see increased dopamineactivity to the presentation of the light, and a depression of dopamine activity when no reward is presented . ➜ That this did not occur supports the findings of the blocking paradigm, as the prior learning about the noise atstage one ‘blocked’ the learning about the light at stage two, and this provides support for the role of dopamine insignalling prediction error.

Question 154

Neuronal activation following the delivery of a reward after a blocked stimulus

Answer 154

For blocking Group B, when a reward was presented after the light, there was dopamine activity to thereward. Had an association been learnt between the light and the reward, then we would have expected to see increased dopamine activity to the light, not the reward . ➜ That this did not occur supports the findings of the blocking paradigm, as the prior learning about the noise atstage one ‘blocked’ the learning about the light at stage two, and this provides support for the role of dopamine insignalling prediction error.

Question 155

What are the arguments against Schultz’s (2007) design supporting the claim that dopamine activity is signalling error prediction?

Answer 155

1. no exact replication with punishment or aversive outcome
2. Would dopamine still fire in the original experiment

Question 156

What are the arguments in favour of Schultz’s (2007) design supporting the claim that dopamine activity is signalling error prediction?

Answer 156

1. the observed pattern does support the role of dopamine signalling prediction error
2. prediction error regards learning in general and is not limited to learning about rewarding outcomes

Question 157

What key does Siegel 2016 outline in the relation between Pavlovian Conditioning, tolerance and addiction

Answer 157

Conditioned Compensatory Responses

Question 158

Siegel (2016) The Heroin Overdose Mystery two key points with Classical Conditioning

Answer 158

UR is NOT the effect of the drug, it is the bodily process that addresses the effect of the drug – the body’s RESPONSE CS all stimuli or contextual cues associated with the drug => illicits body’s indirect response

Question 159

What is the alpha response in the Heroin overdose mystery

Answer 159

a drug is the directresponse that the drug causes, i.e. a rush, depression of respiration.

Question 160

What’s the beta response in the Heroin overdose mystery

Answer 160

homeostatic counter-response that acts to diminish the direct effects of the drug. These homeostatic counter-responses are the responses that enter into conditioning.

Question 161

What is Tolerance and how is it accomplished

Answer 161

cues remainconstant prior to the drug arriving intothe body, the conditioned compensatoryresponse (beta response) bothdiminishes the body’s level of reactivity tothe drug – the drug is expected andprocessed more efficiently, thus its effectsare attenuated (less pleasure)

Question 162

How do you think cues associated with a drug could cause craving, as part of addiction?

Answer 162

1. Cues = elicit a conditioned compensatory response.
2. For example, cues associated with heroin will elicit the conditioned compensatory responses of “despair,” increased pain sensitivity and increased frequency of breathing (which can make individuals feel anxious).
3. The conditioned compensatory responses are all highly aversive.
4. In the presence of cues associated with a drug, an individual will experience the negative/aversive-conditioned compensatory responses, and may then be motivated to take the drug simply to alleviate them

Question 163

Critique of learning theory:

Answer 163

Fails to address the complexity of human behaviour, and too heavily based on animal studies.

Question 164

What is Behavioural Psychology?

Answer 164

Behaviour is learned• Individual difference in behaviour is the result of differentlearning experiences that people have had and thesituations in which they find themselves

Question 165

Research definition of learning:

Answer 165

“A long lasting change in behaviour that results fromexperience”

Question 166

Habituation is the simplest form of learning:

Answer 166

it is –learning NOT to respond to an unimportant event

Question 167

Explain Pavlovian Conditioning

Answer 167

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Question 168

What does classical conditioning provide us with

Answer 168

a way to learn about cause-effect relations between environmental events

Question 169

What are two important factors in classical conditioning

Answer 169

Sequence and Timing

Question 170

Extinction

Answer 170

Present bell with no food following* ➜ reversal of conditioning process* ➜ extinction (association isundone)

Question 171

Acquisition of new knowledge depends on

Answer 171

Intensity of US -> rapidness of learning Timing -> Optimal: Presentation of the CS occurs shortly before the US

Question 172

Associative strength

Answer 172

The strength of the connection between internal representationsof the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus which determines the strength ofthe conditioned response (the Rescorla-Wagner model outlines this).

Question 173

Associability /conditionability

Answer 173

Theease with which the strength of a conditioned response to a stimulus can beincreased by subsequent conditioning.

Question 174

Error term

Answer 174

Difference betweenwhat you expected to happen and what actually happens

Question 175

Contiguity

Answer 175

The temporal and spatial(time & space) relationship between events can influence the strength ofassociation. (arriving at the same time)

Question 176

CS-UScontingency

Answer 176

Thedegree to which the US occurs during the presentation of the CS.

Question 177

What are positive, negative and zero contingency?

Answer 177

• Positive: US is more likely present than the absent
• Negative: US is more likely absent than the present
• zero: US is equally likely during the presence and the absence of the CS.

Question 178

How does contingency relate to excitatory or inhibitory learning?

Answer 178

• Positive CS-UScontingency –> excitatory conditioning
• Negative CS-UScontingency –> inhibitory learning.

Question 179

Blocking

Answer 179

Kamin’s (1969) blocking effect study demonstrates thatconditioning to a stimulus could be blocked if the stimulus were reinforced incompound with a previously conditioned stimulus. A+, AB+, B+ = blocked conditioning of B

Question 180

The summation principle

Answer 180

When the associative strength of individual stimuli are presentedtogether, the individual strengths are added together.

Question 181

Cue competition

Answer 181

If two cues are trained in compound, they will compete for associative strength with the paired outcome, so that if we train AB+, the strength of association that develops between A and the outcome, will be weaker than the association between stimulus and outcome if we trained C+.

Question 182

Overshadowing

Answer 182

The disruption of conditioning with one stimulus because of the presence of another stimulus. -> stronger conditioned stimulus will overshadow a weaker one

Question 183

Conditioned compensatory response:

Answer 183

The body usually tries to maintain a state of homeostasis. When people use drugs, the body and brain learn to counteract the effects of the drug upon presentation of conditioned stimuli (cues, e.g. needle) and respond to produce physiological reactions that are opposite to that of the drug (see Siegal paper)

Question 184

Acquisition

Answer 184

is demonstrated. At first, the word can by itself causes no special response. After repeated pairings of the word can and the water, the word by itself gradually becomes more likely to cause a CR.

Question 185

Stimulus generalisation

Answer 185

occurs when words that sound like can (e.g., cam, ban, ran, cap) lead to a CR.

Question 186

Stimulus discrimination

Answer 186

occurs when different stimulus words produce differences in the CRs. In the demonstration, CRs are strongest and most likely to occur after the word can. They are weakest and least likely to occur after stimulus words that do not sound at all like can (e.g., dish, board, smoke).

Question 187

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 187

has occurred after extinction when a long string of words in which can is not included is followed by the word can, and the word can again causes a CR. Such a string occurs near the end of the demonstration.

Question 188

Reconditioning savings

Answer 188

is demonstrated at the end of the list, where the word can and a squirt are again paired. At this point, fewer trials are needed to achieve strong, reliable CRs compared with the original acquisition at the beginning of the list.

Question 189

What are the Clinical applications of Classical Conditioning? (Assumption)

Answer 189

Psychopathology = learned maladaptiveresponse to a situationthat may have generalised to other situations orsimilar stimuli ➜ it could beunlearned (systematic desensitisation, aversion therapy)

Question 190

Skinner’s approach: Instrumental/operant conditioning

Answer 190

Instrumental/operant conditioning tells us about the relations between environmental stimuli and our own behaviour: 1. There is an outcome that reinforces behaviour 2. There is a relationship between response and outcome. <img></img>

Question 191

What does operant refer to?

Answer 191

The term ‘operant’ refers to the fact that anorganism learns through responding: throughoperating on the environment.

Question 192

How do Habituation, Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning relate?

Answer 192

Question 193

What does Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect say?

Answer 193

If an action/response is encountered with aversive or positive measures the response might be weakened

Question 194

What is the main critique and relevancy of The Law of Effect

Answer 194

Critique : ‘Satisfaction’ is too mentalistic, and implieswe can observe and measure subjective feelings Impact : Law of Effect stimulated experimental studiesaimed at understanding behaviour - environmentinteraction

Question 195

Baby Albert (Watson & Rayner, 1920)

Answer 195

Watson was influenced by Pavlov’s work.He argued that, given the correct stimuli, the organismcould learn to behave (give responses) in a specificway, just how Pavlov’s dogs had ‘learned’ to associatethe bell with the appearance of food.

Question 196

What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?

Answer 196

• Something is added to increase behaviour (reward) = positve
• A behaviour that removes a negative outcome is introduced (applying sunscreen not to get sunburned) = negative

Question 197

Examples for positive or negative punishment

Answer 197

• positve punishment: decreasing behaviour by introducing unfavourable outcome (screaming)
• negative punishment: decreasing behaviour by removing privilege (taking attention away)

Question 198

Intermittent or partialreinforcement schedules

Answer 198

Not everyrecurrent of a response isreinforced

Question 199

What are the different types of reinforcement schedules

Answer 199

*knowing that after filling each cart they’ll be rewarded

Question 200

How do goal-directed behaviours, conditioning and habits relate?

Answer 200

Question 201

How do goal-directed behaviours differ from habitual behaviours?

Answer 201

• they are consciously controlled
• the response leads to an outcome
• with repetition they become habitual

Question 202

How could you test whether a behaviourwas/was not habitual?

Answer 202

1. Determining whether the behaviourcontinues in the absence of theoutcome 2. Determining whether the behaviourcontinues when the outcome isdevalued…

Question 203

According to the dopamine hypothesis when should a spike in dopamine occur in the blocking paradigm

Answer 203

Immediately after the light and not after the reward to proof that there’s not learning

Question 204

Feature-positivediscrimination

Answer 204

A discrimination inwhich an outcome isdelivered during acompound of twostimuli, but not duringone of the stimuliby itself.

Question 205

Negative patterning

Answer 205

A discrimination inwhich an outcome isdelivered during acompound of twostimuli, but not duringeither stimulusby itself.

Question 206

Configural cue

Answer 206

A hypothetical stimulus that is assumed to be created by presenting two stimuli together. Different pairs of stimuli are assumed to create different configural cues.

Question 207

Difference between configural and elemental models of discrimination learning?

Answer 207

Configural models claim that that learning occurs only for a compound AB while elemental models assume that for a compound AB learning occurs for both elements A & B so the association is summed up.

Question 208

Instrumental conditioning is when an organism learns the association between two stimuli.
The term ‘operant’ refers to the fact that an organism learns through responding …

Answer 208

under the consideration of their own behaviour through operating on the environment

Question 209

When conditioning a dog to salvate, what is the UCS, UCR, CS and CR before, during and after conditioning?

Answer 209

Question 210

How does three-term contingency work?

Answer 210

Question 211

Who’s responsible for the developement of operant conditioning

Answer 211

Edward Thorndike 1898

Question 212

Thorndike’s study 1898

Answer 212

Hungry cat in a puzzle box Escape to eat if it operated a latch that opened the door First random behaviour Then accidental operation of door until it became a deliberate action <strong>learning by trial and accidental success</strong>

Question 213

Watson & Rainer 1920 (Aim, Method, Result, Importance)

Answer 213

Aim study the concept of classical conditioning, more specifically conditioned emotional responses on people (fear)

Method Albert initially did not display a fear of laboratory rats (9 months), producing a startled and fearful response to a loud noise made by banging a hammer on a metal bar (UCS that causes the UCR fear). Albert began to reach for a rat, the noise was made behind his head. Repeated → generalised fear of other white, furry objects paired the rat with the noise seven times in two sessions, one week apart.When the rat was presented on its own, Albert became distressed and avoided the rat. Five days later, Alben was exposed to a number of other objects such as familiar wooden blocks, a rabbit, a dog, a sealskin coat, white cotton, the heads of Watson and two assistants, a Santa Claus mask and a packet of cocoon wool

Result conditioned to fear rats in the absence to the noise

Important First experiment and successful attempt at conditioning fear in human first experiment in which fear was experimentally conditioned in a human being

Question 214

Watson on Consciousness

Answer 214

too subjective to lend itself to scientific investigation. Inner thoughts and psychodynamic processes don’t cause behaviour

Question 215

Watson’s definition of psychology? Psychology can be defined as…

Answer 215

the objective study of behaviour and the stimuli which produce such behaviour

Question 216

What should Psychology focus on according to Watson? On the

Answer 216

Exclusively limited to measurable explicit (seen by eye) and measurable implicit behaviours (using measurement technology, e.g. skin conductance, saliva)

Question 217

What would Skinner say about anxiety?

Answer 217

It stems from developmentally learned maladaptive responses. Physiological responses correlating to anxiety are due to a change in preparatory behaviour when presented with a stressful stimulus and not personality

Question 218

Darwian explanation for individual differences

Answer 218

Caused by feedback loops of genetic inheritance and situational determinats which were reinforced in the course of evolution. This means individual differences are due to genes.

Question 219

What is the claim of Maslow’s theory of human motivation

Answer 219

Humans aim to produce pleasant and to avoid painful events. Even private internal behaviour is not caused by emotions but said desire. Intentions are responses to internal stimuli.

Question 220

What are the limitations of classical conditioning (3)?

Answer 220

1. too simplistic for more learning conditions because it’s only a stimulus followed by response
2. doesn’t answer what happens after response
3. Reinforcement?

Question 221

Explain the result of Skinner’s Operant Chamber

Answer 221

Result: learning occurs despite varied reinforcement schedules there is a lever of some sort that the animal in the course of exploring the box will press at some point. animal is rewarded with food. an electronic device attached to the lever to record the animal’s rate of pressing. after the bar pressing had resulted in the animal being reinforced with food, the rate at which the animal pressed the bar increased.

Question 222

Shaping means

Answer 222

reinforcing any behaviour that successively approximates the desired response ⇒ rewards only if it gradually aligns with the wished response i.e. the gradual association process.

Question 223

How and why does IR work against extinction

Answer 223

because not every situation constitutes to the reinforcement of a response so the varying ratio or interval doesn’t initially signal extinction

Question 224

I see you frequently go near the biscuit tin, so I pay more attention to the biscuit tin.

Answer 224

stimulus enhancement

social

Question 225

I see you burn yourself on the iron so I realise that touching it has negative consequences.

Answer 225

observational conditioning

social

Question 226

Learning occurs by trying lots of options and seeing which works best, without watching or receiving instructions from another individual.

Answer 226

trial-and-error learning

asocial

Question 227

I learn how to cook a lasagna by calling a family member and asking for the recipe, which is given verbally or through a text.

Answer 227

learning from communication

asocial

Question 228

I notice you pressing your access card against a small rectangular panel to access the work building, so I learn that I need to press my card there too.

Answer 228

affordance learning

social

observer learns how objects work (the ‘affordances’ of the objects) by observing others’ interaction

Question 229

I see you kick a doll so it falls to the floor. I then punch a doll so that it falls to the floor.

Answer 229

emulation

social

copying the outcome of another’s person actions

Question 230

I use chopsticks in one hand to pick up some sushi; my companion takes one chopstick in each hand and tries to perform the same movements with the chopsticks but using very different actions.

Answer 230

object movement re-enactment

social

copying the movement of an object not necessarily the action itself

Question 231

I find, for the first time, that I can use a long item to pull my phone from under the bed, which I can’t reach with my hands. I do this without consulting anyone else.

Answer 231

innovation

asocial

Question 232

I improve my tennis serve through practice, not by observing experts.

Answer 232

individual learning

asocial

learning through gradual feedback from the outcome

Question 233

I watch a tennis match and copy the players’ precise actions to improve my own tennis serve.

Answer 233

imitation (social)

Question 234

An adult (teacher) demonstrates and instructs a child how to tie shoelaces.

Answer 234

learning from teaching

Question 235

Distinction directed and asocial

Answer 235

behaviour of others (not via observation) or input information coming in is intended to teach vs asocial learning means learning about something by oneself not based on what others do

Question 236

Why is learning via teaching asocial

Answer 236

You’re not directly learning through observation but through the deliberate instruction (communication) through others

Question 237

What are instinctive behaviours

Answer 237

sexual behaviours, fight & flight, hibration & migration, eating & drinking, baby suckling and baby crying

Question 238

What are three important points to remember about generalisation?

Answer 238

1. Depends on experience
2. Useful in moderate degrees; too much means failure to discriminate between stimuli
3. Experience and associative learning influences discrimination between stimuli

Question 239

What is the Flynn effect influenced by (Neisser, 1998a)?

Answer 239

Length of schooling Test-taking sophistication: understanding and getting used to IQ tests as their incorporated into schooling → impact on non-verbal intelligence? Only 5 points increase when retaking Child-rearing: educational programmes Head start program for disadvantaged children: significant immediate gains but asymptotic curve Visual and technical environment: adverts are more subtle, learning through complicated visual materials → little evidence Nutrition

Question 240

Heyes and colleagues experiment and its findings? 2005

Answer 240

Learning to imitate would have resulted in longer time needed to react

Question 241

What are the three major points of criticism for the classical view?

Answer 241

1. concepts are definitions of categories are undermined by arguments that many categories cannot be defined and cannot readily explain typicality effects, borderline cases, and intransitivity
2. People may categorise things in different ways according to their goals and the nature of their knowledge so as to fit the claims of different theories
3. Different types of categories have different properties and so may require different theoretical treatments

Question 242

What is categorisation in the prototype view determined by?

Answer 242

similarity to the prototype, which also explains the typicality

Question 243

What are the concerns concerning the prototype view?

Answer 243

• cannot explain the context-sensitivity of typicality
• does not explain how prototypes might combine in complex concepts
• the unsettled nature of whether the existence of typicality effects implies a prototype organization

Question 244

What is the theory-based view about?

Answer 244

can explain the non-independence of attributes in concepts and dissociations between categorization and similarity while offering an account for similarity

Question 245

What criticism of the theory-based view?

Answer 245

it is not clear how theories might combine complex concepts, and the notion of a theory is unspecified

Question 246

What is Eysenck’s hierarchical model of personality?

Answer 246

Personality is viewed as the result of the specific responses that, when repeated, may lead to habitual responses which inform how a supertraits manifests. Personality consists of supertraits

Specific Response –> Habitual Response –> Supertrait –> Personality

Question 247

What is personality in Eysenck’s hierarchical model of personality?

Answer 247

stable/long-lasting organization of one’s character, temperament, intelligence, physique, and nervous system

Question 248

What is a supertrait in Eysenck’s hierarchical model of personality?

Answer 248

personality type = spectrum of correlated traits, including Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism

Question 249

What are four implicit theories of intelligence, and why are they important?

Answer 249

1. People perceive and evaluate the intelligence of themselves, and others to inform their actions in the real world.
2. can lead to more formal theories and investigations using the scientific method
3. avenues for researchers to explore possibly false explicit and formal theories
4. can inform theories around intelligence in terms of how it develops and/or any cross-cultural differences

Question 250

verbal ability

Answer 250

wide vocabulary can converse on most topics

Question 251

What are the six factors of intelligence identified by Sternberg in 1985?

Answer 251

1. fluid thought
2. practical problem-solving ability
3. intellectual balance and integration
4. contextual intelligence
5. verbal ability
6. goal orientation and attainment

Question 252

practical problem-solving ability

Answer 252

identifying correct and wrong answers, tends to see attainable goals and accomplish them

Question 253

intellectual balance and integration

Answer 253

ability to understand and interpret environment; learning, remembering

Question 254

contextual intelligence

Answer 254

recognising connections and distinctions

Question 255

goal orientation and attainment

Answer 255

tends to obtain + use the information for specific purposes

Question 256

thinks quickly, mathematical ability

Answer 256

fluid thought

Question 257

What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers/punishers?

Answer 257

• Primary reinforcers/punishers are biologically significant stimuli that are naturally appetitive or aversive.
• Secondary or conditioned reinforcers/punishers are appetitive or aversive as a result of being associated with primary reinforcers/punishers.

Question 258

Why is the nutrition hypothesis hard to test?

Answer 258

Deprivations of any kind always result in cognitive decline

Question 259

What are the two hypotheses on the Flynn effect?

Answer 259

nutrition hypothesis vs. cognitive stimulation hypothesis

Question 260

What is the nutrition hypothesis?

Answer 260

Intelligence is increased with good nutrition, as are height, lifespan, and health

Question 261

What is the cognitive simulation hypothesis?

Answer 261

higher intelligence scores are derived from improvements in cognitive stimulation (improved schooling, visual)

Question 262

What would be the outcome if nutrition or stimulation was poor according to the nutrition and cognitive stimulation hypotheses?

Answer 262

• bad nutrition: mode of the bell curve of intelligence should be noticeable (closer to the lower end)
• poor stimulation: all levels should rise across generations

Question 263

What is the debate around the Head Start program?

Answer 263

• IQ scores after children leave the program fall
• underprivileged children return to the same environment, which might contribute to these effects
• questionable lasting educational benefits

Question 264

What are the six countries people have full distribution data sets for so they can investigate the nutrition hypotheses (Flynn,2007)?

Answer 264

• France, Netherlands, Denmark, USA, Spain, Norway
• Proof only for 3 countries Denmark, Spain, Norway

Question 265

What did the results of his study suggest about the role of schooling in IQ?

Answer 265

Is not as important as they initially thought, as evidenced by the 15 points gained in non-verbal intelligence and only 9 point difference in verbal intelligence

Question 266

Why has the Flynn effect disappeared since the 90s (hypothesis)?

Answer 266

• Nutrition: Less malnutirioned children in Scandinavia, so less low IQ scores, so little observable Flynn effect
• Child-rearing: more stimulating, but off-time is spent less stimulating (Flynn no proof)

Question 267

Why doesn’t it matter that US intensity (assigned lambda scores to the US) cannot be accurately measured?

Answer 267

Because it focuses on the qualitative statements

Question 268

Explain how the equation accounts for the role of surprise.

Answer 268

• The associative strength of a CS grows, and it becomes a more accurate predictor of the US.
• discrepancy (lambda - V) then becomes significant because it indicates the extent to which the US is unexpected or surprising

Question 269

What can be more predictive of success than IQ?

Answer 269

Grit

Question 270

How was the potential of Grit discovered?

Answer 270

Factor analysis of questionnaire results of diverse samples

Question 271

What is GRIT?

Answer 271

Stamina, passion and perseverance for very long-term goals.

Question 272

What is the issue of GRIT?

Answer 272

Underresearched but can be supplemented with Carol Dweck’s Growth Mindset

Question 273

What are the five processes by which Harris (1995) explains that non-shared environmental factors determine personality and intelligence?

Answer 273

1. context-specific socialisation
2. outside-the-home socialisation
3. transmission of culture via group processes
4. group processes that widen differences between social groups
5. group processes that widen differences among individuals within the group

Question 274

According to Kamin and Goldberger (2002), do twin studies over- or under-estimate the role of genetics? Why?

Answer 274

Twin studies overestimate the influence of genetics, because identical twins may have more similar environments than nonidentical twins.

Question 275

Why does Stoolmiller (1998) argue that placement strategies influence the conclusions that can be drawn from adoption studies regarding heritability?

Answer 275

Adoption agencies may favour placing children in more affluent households with less exposure to sociodemographic adversity. Therefore, the influence of economic status is never explored in these studies.

Question 276

What are the four environmental influences on intelligence discussed in the reading at the beginning of this lesson?

Answer 276

1. school and education
2. biological variables and maternal effects: nutrition, lead and prenatal factors
3. family environment: shared and nonshared environments within and outside the family factors, social class and socioeconomic status, birth order and family size
4. culture: decontextualisation, quantification and biologisation.

Question 277

In terms of the influence of education on intelligence, what did Nessier et al. (1996) find?

Answer 277

Nessier et al. (1996) found that education is both an independent and dependent variable. School attendance (education as independent variable) is likely to increase intelligence; and increased intelligence is likely to influence your school attendance, the duration of your schooling and the quality of your school (education as dependent variable).

Question 278

What’s the Wilson effect?

Answer 278

The heritability of IQ increases with age.

Question 279

Which two conditions mentioned by Martin and Carlson (2018) must be satisfied for a neutral stimulus to become a conditional stimulus (CS)?

Answer 279

1. The CS must predict the presentation of the unconditional stimulus (UCS). That is, the CS must regularly occur prior to the presentation of the UCS.
2. The CS does not regularly occur when the UCS is absent.

Question 280

In the popular US TV show, The Big Bang Theory, the character Sheldon trains another character, Penny, to increase the frequency of behaviours that he prefers by rewarding her with chocolate. In this example, what is chocolate?

Answer 280

Positive reinforcer → the question didn’t ask for UCS/CS

Question 281

What does the RW say about overshadowing?

Answer 281

Learning about stimuli in a compound will always result in the components having less associative strength than if they were separately paired with the US -> one is overshadowing the other

Question 281

“Wagner and Rescorla (1972) suggest that any stimulus that possesses negative associative strength will be a conditioned inhibitor.” Explain this.

Answer 281

If a stimulus with negative associative strength is paired with a US, then conditioning will at first be without apparent an effect, because a number of trials will be needed before the associative strength of the stimulus becomes positive and it can elicit a CR. This effect constitutes a retardation test for conditioned inhibition.

Question 282

Brown and Poulton (1961)?

Answer 282

• listen to repeated strings of eight numbers.
• same sequence was presented successively, except that a randomly selected member of the list was changed from one trial to the next.
• people were tasked to listen to the sequence and identify the new item
• Then, driving a car at the same time significantly decreased the accuracy

Question 282

What is the Orienting Response?

Answer 282

The orienting response is usually prompted by novel stimuli and results in a subject investing their attention -> implication: vigour of response = attention

Question 283

How do OR and the R-W model relate?

Answer 283

Or show that CS conditionability does not only depend on the intensity of US but also or so the attention given to the stimuli

Question 283

Kaye and Pearce (1987)?

Answer 283

• Two groups of rats were placed into a conditioning chamber containing a light bulb and a food dispenser.
• For the first 12 sessions, nothing happened for Group Novel
• For Group Familiar the bulb was illuminated for 10 seconds at a time at intervals in each session.
• Both groups were then given a single pretest session in which the light was occasionally illuminated for 10 seconds.
• Group novel was habituated, also had more intense ORs
• Repeated exposure reduced attention paid to it, so group novel should learn more quickly than group familiar → latent inhibition (Lubow, 1973)

Question 284

What does latent inhibition not describe for three reasons?

Answer 284

• Does not describe an interrupting in conditioning like conditioned inhibition
• Conditioned inhibition = You need to condition the absence of the expected US
• Latent inhibition can develop in the absence of an expected US
  latent inhibition disrupts conditioned inhibition

Question 284

What does latent inhibition describe?

Answer 284

When preexposure to a CS leads to reduced attention paid to the reduced effectiveness of paring the CS with the US

Question 285

What does SOP generally propose about latent inhibition and habituation in the case of retrieval-generated representations?

Answer 285

Depend on the context in which the stimulus was exposed
Exposure to the same stimuli in the same conditioning chamber is more disruptive there than in a different one

Question 285

Bond 1983 on stimuli significance

Answer 285

identification of food is difficult; pigeons attend selectively to the features of a single food type to facilitate its discovery (see also Dawkins, 1971a,b).

Question 286

How do IDS and EDS factor into discrimination?

Answer 286

claim that, during discrimination, animals learn to pay more attention to relevant than irrelevant stimuli

Question 287

What are IDS and EDS

Answer 287

• IDS: (Intradimensional Shift) The selection of two stimuli for discrimination from a dimension that provided two stimuli for earlier discrimination.
• EDS: Extradimensional Shift is the selection of two stimuli for a discrimination from a different dimension to one that provides two stimuli for an earlier discrimination.

Question 287

What does the SOP predict about habituation?

Answer 287

more likely to occur on the second presentation of a stimulus when the interval between the two presentations is short rather than long

Question 288

How do retrieval-generated representations matter in Best & Gemberling 1977?

Answer 288

• Best & Gemberling 1977: preexposure trial may well have fostered the growth of a context-flavour association. This would then disrupt conditioning somewhat by ensuring that at least a component of the representation of the flavour was in the A2 state at the time of conditioning

Question 288

Peak Shift

Answer 288

Describes the shift of the peak at which generalisation occurs the most, usually away from inhibitory or other Stimuli and more into the direction of the presented Stimuli

Question 288

What is the role of attention in the Pearce–Hall (1980) model?

Answer 288

Two modes of attention (simultaneously)

• Controlled: limited capacity + directed towards tasks that are novel or require conscious control. This type of attention is referred to as controlled or deliberate
• Habitual: more automatic and directed towards tasks that are very well practiced and the performance of which is more or less habitual

Question 288

What are the challenges in Mackintosh’s account of blocking?

Answer 288

the surprising omission of one of a pair of shocks after each compound-conditioning trial was sufficient to disrupt blocking

Question 288

How do retrieval-generated representations matter in Whitlow 1975?

Answer 288

• Whitlow 1975: response to a repeatedly presented tone was greater on the first than on subsequent sessions of testing. This relatively long-term effect was attributed to the growth of a context-tone association during the first session. Subsequent placement of the rabbits into the apparatus should then partially retrieve an A2 representation of the tone and make them less responsive to it whenever it occurred. Thus, the SOP model predicts that habituation is the result of the interaction of both short-term (self-generated) and long-term (retrieval-generated) processes.

Question 288

What are acquired equivalence and distinctiveness?

Answer 288

Reinforcement of stimuli that results in them either appearing more similar or distinct from each other because they have similar or different outcomes

Question 288

Blocking in Mackintosh’s terms?

Answer 288

• conditioning with the added CS should be normal on the first compound trial.
• only on later trials when the added CS is ignored that the effects of blocking become evident — need more trials to show an effect
• Experiment showed little change in added cs after second compound conditioning

Question 288

What is learned irrelevance?

Answer 288

slower learning that takes place when a CS and US are paired if they have previously been presented randomly with respect to each other (Mackintosh, 1973)

Question 288

How is excitatory conditioning possible in the SOP?

Answer 288

simultaneous rehearsal of representations of the CS and the US while they are both in the Al state

Question 288

What was discrimination influenced by?

Answer 288

→ the similarity of the outcomes signalled by the stimuli
An improvement in the ease with which discrimination between two stimuli can be acquired as a result of prior exposure to the stimuli.

Question 288

What are the differences between Mackintosh and Pearce-Hall in experiment?

Answer 288

• Latent inhibition should be possible in Pearce-Hall as long as the outcome is changed in intensity or its presentation increments = unreliable p.90 reread
• Pearce-Hall’s (1980) theory predicts that it should be possible to obtain latent inhibition by repeatedly pairing the CS with the US, as well as repeatedly presenting it by itself.
• Mackintosh: tone becomes the best predictor for us

Question 288

What are retrieval-generated representations?

Answer 288

A1 is excited by presenting a memory in correspondence with stimuli → When CS and US are both presented in A1 state and conditioning is complete, the CS will excite the memory of the US in the A2 state
So, it describes how CS indirectly cause the activation of an associated representation of a US in A2 state

Question 288

Explain feature-positive discrimination.

Answer 288

outcome is delivered during a compound of two stimuli but not during one of the stimuli by itself. (reversal of negative patterning)

Question 289

What is the role of surprise in learning, according to the Pearce–Hall (1980) model?

Answer 289

Animals need to attend to stimuli only when learning about them; controlled attention -> more automatic attention
Surprise determines to what degree attention will be paid and learning consequently occurs (pp. 86-87)

Question 289

What are the differences between elemental and configural theories of discrimination learning?

Answer 289

• Elemental: Theories based on the assumption that during conditioning with a compound stimulus, each component of the compound can enter individually into an association with the US.
• Configural: when two or more stimuli are presented together for conditioning, only a single association will develop (pp.152–6)

Question 289

What counterintuitive prediction does the RW make about discrimination?

Answer 289

That discrimination will be easier if two sets of stimuli are similar to each other (BC & ABC) than when they’re different (A & ABC)

Question 289

What is a configural cue?

Answer 289

Hypothetical stimulus X or QX that is part of the compound stimuli that takes on inhibitory properties compared to the CT properties exciting the prior response (p.153)

Question 289

Hanson, 1959

Answer 289

Peak response to the association between stimuli and outcome occurs not at the stimulus (S+) but further along a gradient away from the other stimulus (S-) that hasn’t been paired with the outcome
Yellow gradient, pigeons S+ 550 nanometers and S- 560 nanometers
→ peak shift at 540 nanometers and responses below

Question 289

What are two factors influencing discrimination?

Answer 289

Similarity between reward and nonreward.
whether subjects receive preexposure to the stimuli before the discrimination commences

Question 289

Honey and Bateson 1996

Answer 289

Two groups of chicks in a cool chamber were taught to approach a picture in whose direction was w arm stream of air
Group control only received that training G. experimental was preexposed to both images
Control group required more training to discriminate between the pictures

Question 290

What would happen if two similar stimuli were paired?

Answer 290

• pairing two stimuli with the same outcome should make it difficult subsequently to solve discrimination between them.

*pairing two stimuli with different outcomes should have the opposite effect and facilitate discrimination

• Perceptual Learning (Delamater 1998)

Question 291

What is ABC renewal?

Answer 291

conditioning, extinction, and testing respectively occur in Contexts A, B, and C (ABC renewal) and A, A, and B (AAB renewal)

Question 291

Mackintosh, Kaye, and Bennett (1991)

Answer 291

Both groups drink a solution containing saline and lemon before being injected with lithium chloride to induce an aversion to the compound.
Preexposure to the two compounds resulted in perceptual learning and allowed discrimination

Question 291

How does categorisation work in the classical view?

Answer 291

• things belong to categories because they possess certain properties in common.
• Possession of the common aspect is important for category membership
• Possession of the common properties is sufficient for category membership
• e.g. Bachelors (unmarried, adult, male) has multiple categories

Question 291

What is the consequence of the weak influence of ABC and AAB renewal?

Answer 291

• Shows that conditioned responses can transfer onto new

Question 291

What is spontaneous recovery?

Answer 291

allowing time to elapse after extinction has occurred can allow the behaviour to at least partially return

Question 291

What is a GOE?

Answer 291

Goodness of exemplar
Typicality rating method

Question 291

What is resurgence?

Answer 291

an organism first learns one operant response (e.g., pressing a lever in a Skinner box) and then, while that behaviour is being extinguished, a second “replacement” behaviour is reinforced (e.g., pressing a second lever in the box)

Question 291

What is exemplar theory?

Answer 291

concepts are instead representations of the individual members ( or exemplars) of the category that we have experienced

Question 291

What is the issue surrounding a lack of definitions (Wittgenstein, 1953)?

Answer 291

• Categories seem to group common aspects together, but as a whole, on a specific level, you’ll find no truly common properties like in games
• Categories are indefinable

Question 291

What does transivity mean?

Answer 291

Members of category A also belong to B, B → C = A → C

Question 291

How does the classical view relate to typicality (representativeness)?

Answer 291

All members must meet the definition criteria and be equal in their quality as members but there are systematic differences

Question 291

When does an item belong to a category?

Answer 291

As long as there is not a significant divergence between it and the prototype =similarity

Question 291

What are the key findings of AAB and ABC renewal research?

Answer 291

You do not need to return to an original context for a conditioned behaviour to occur

Question 292

What is the prototype theory?

Answer 292

Born out of the limitations of the classical view and centres the best category member who acts as a representative

Question 292

What do McClelland and Rogers mean by the propagation of activation? (p.312)

Answer 292

Semantic information is not stored as such but is reconstructed in response to probes in a process called pattern completion. These patterns are activated if one tries to retrieve said knowledge, whereby the strength of these connections depends on experience. → Think Hebbian Synapses

Question 292

What do typicality effects do?

Answer 292

Expose the insufficient differentiation between members but not contradict the classical view as a whole because it is all-or-nothing. There are no borderline cases that cannot be clearly distinguished (McCloskey & Glucksberg,1978)

Question 292

What approach did Quillian propose? (p.310)?

Answer 292

• Concepts organised in a hierarchical order ranging from a general and encompassing superordinate to increasingly specific concepts
  → Propositions applicable to all members of a superordinate category could be stored only once, at the level of the superordinate category

Question 292

Thinking of the extinction of an inhibitory process, is the context important in influencing all forms of inhibitory learning?

Answer 292

Inhibition is studied via feature-negative discrimination (X+; XY-) but inhibition to Y is not specific to the original context but transfers without loss over to other contexts in which X is harder to inhibit as XY-

Question 292

How does this aspect challenge the classical view?

Answer 292

It’s transitive, but peoples’ judgments aren’t consistent (Hampton, 1982 Is a car seat furniture?)

Question 292

What is the difference between prototype and classical theory?

Answer 292

Prototype theory allows a degree of mismatch of the qualities while classical theory doesn’t → level of matching = typicality

Question 292

What do Brooks et al. (1991) (skin disorder categorisation) and Allen and Brooks (1991) show (cartoon animal picture organisation)?

Answer 292

Exemplar so previous information is hard to ignore

Question 292

What’s typicality?

Answer 292

the degree to which an object or stimulus is the best or most representative example of a category or concept

Question 293

How is the parallel distributed processing (PDP) model trained? (p.313)

Answer 293

connections are initially set to small random values so that activations produced by a particular input are weak and undifferentiated. The network is trained by presenting it with experiences based on the information contained in Quillian’s hierarchy

Question 294

What is a hidden unit? (pp.313–14)

Answer 294

The hidden units are not anything physically ‘real’. The are abstract concepts that allow us to capture complex relationships. ➜ They act like gateways between input and output

Question 294

According to McClelland and Rogers, why do infants first develop basic-level (intermediate-level) descriptions? (p.317)

Answer 294

• Parents use superordinate words more frequently than specific ones
• The clustering of objects in the world into tight-knit intermediate-level groups within superordinate categories
• the tendency for parents to use intermediate-level words more frequently than more general or more specific words when speaking to children; few items — such as dogs — are discussed far more frequently in such speech than are related items — such as other land animals, birds or fish
• All this leads to more weighted connections and more robust networks

Question 294

What is the overestimate of high-density contingencies?

Answer 294

In control tasks, sometimes referred to as operant tasks (Dickinson et al., 1984), but also predictive tasks in which participants judge relationships between symptoms and diagnoses, participants have strong a priori expectations that events are associated

Question 294

What was crucial to Msetfi and colleagues’ replication of Alloy and Abramson’s method?

Answer 294

Varied intertrial interval

Question 294

What is at the centre of casual learning?

Answer 294

used a contingency judgment task, establishing the contingency between an action and an outcome, that is, the extent to which the action has a causal relationship to the outcome

Question 294

What were their results for the long intertrial interval?

Answer 294

No action and no outcome, so the table above cell -> increased contingency because they overlap

Question 294

What do Kripke, Putnam and Pinker argue about cases in which a definition is found to be incompatible with an item?

Answer 294

Even if it failed the definition, it would remain in a category or be defined by the term it referred to (cats from Mars, lions who are lions)

Question 294

What is depressive realism?

Answer 294

Being depressed makes for realistic inferences as compared to when you’re not

Question 294

What is coherent covariation? (p.318)

Answer 294

Consistent co-occurrence of a set of properties across different objects. The concept is distinct from simple correlation in that it generally refers to the co-occurrence of more than two properties. For example, having wings, having feathers, having hollow bones and being able to fly all consistently co-occur in birds.

Question 294

What is learned helplessness?

Answer 294

a person has learnt to attribute their failures in situations to internal, stable and global (will be there in every aspect of their life and in all situations) factors

Question 294

What are contingency judgment tasks?

Answer 294

a participant is trying to work out whether the presence of one stimulus or outcome is contingent on another stimulus or action → causal relationship?

Question 294

Why is contingency judgment important?

Answer 294

People who can accurately judge when outcomes are contingent on their actions can control the occurrence of outcomes or avoid inappropriate behaviour

Question 294

Optimism and pessimism are

Answer 294

Habits of thinking that reveal personal explanatory style

Question 294

The core of optimism is

Answer 294

The formation of new beliefs or attitudes

Question 294

What is explanatory style (Seligman, 1991)?

Answer 294

way that you explain your problems and setbacks to yourself and choose either a positive or negative way to solve them

Question 294

Learned helplessness

Answer 294

state of affairs where you feel there is nothing you can do to affect what happens to you, and life is uncontrollable is at learned

Question 294

What are the components to learn about optimism (Seligman, 1991; 1998)?

Answer 294

adversity (A): challenge
beliefs (B): forming beliefs about adversity
consequences (C): of those beliefs

Question 295

Pessimism

Answer 295

• When is optimism not an ideal way of thinking
• Unrealistic plays into biases and heuristics

Question 295

What is distraction there for, and what do they allow for?

Answer 295

• Distraction: putting aside the adversity and reevaluating the situation
• Avoid the emotional issues and rumina and disassociate these emotions from the issue

Question 295

What are the four unrealistic strategies in false hope syndrome?

Answer 295

1. Speed
2. Ease
3. Amount
4. Reward

Question 295

What are Seligman (1991) two specific tactics to combat pessimism (or what he terms learned helplessness)?

Answer 295

Distraction
Disputation

Question 295

What is disputation there for and what do they allow for?

Answer 295

After distraction: challenging the emotions previously experienced about the adversity that caused feelings of overwhelmed

Question 295

What is dispositional optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985)?

Answer 295

as a person’s general predisposition to be optimistic in their mood or their temperament due to genes or personality and not due to learning

Question 295

What are the three key differences between dispositional and learned optimism?

Answer 295

• DO expect either favourable/unfavourable vs. LO is used to explain future events being either positive or negative due to opt/pes
• DO and DP, therefore, determine whether a person pursues their goals expecting either favourable or poor results and if they keep pursuing them or abandon them

Question 295

According to Scheier and Carver dispositional optimism affects

Answer 295

General mood or affective experience and are therefore stable traits that are displayed across periods of time

Question 295

How is dispositional optimism measured?

Answer 295

self-report questionnaire called the Life Orientation Test (LOT)
(Originally, four positively and negatively worded items
Later extended to filler items and three each)

Question 296

What are the two reactions we have to stress (Folkman, 1984; Lazarus et al., 1966)?

Answer 296

1. primary or stress appraisals: to assess whether the stress is harmful or useful to us.
2. secondary appraisals or coping strategies:assess whether the stress is harmful or useful to us.

Question 296

What are the three components of primary appraisals?

Answer 296

1. Threat – stressful situation = harm the individual.
2. Loss – stressful situation => loss for the person; for example, loss in friendships, health, self-esteem.
3. Challenge – refers to seeing the stressful situation as having the potential for growth or benefits for the individual. (potential benefit)

Question 296

Which primary components trigger secondary appraisals?

Answer 296

Threat and loss

Question 296

Which seven aspects influence the appraisal of threats or losses (Ferguson et al., 1999)?

Answer 296

• complexity
• the individual’s values
• commitments and goals
• novelty of the situation
• social support
• intensity of the situation
• perceived controllability of the potential threat or loss

Question 296

What are engaged and disengaged coping mechanisms, aka, emotion-focused and problem-focused coping mechanisms?

Answer 296

• problem-focused coping strategies (sometimes called adaptive or direct coping) are logical coping strategies directed at resolving the stress changing some aspects of the environment and of the self
• emotion-focused coping involves coping attempts that are not directed at the stressful event and instead are directed at decreasing emotional distress caused by the stressful event (Rice, 2000).

Question 296

What are emotional coping strategies?

Answer 296

wishful thinking, venting and expressing emotions, and seeking social support

Question 296

What is Situational optimism?

Answer 296

expectations that an individual generates for a particular situation concerning whether good rather than bad things will happen

Question 296

What’s the difference between dispositional and situational optimists?

Answer 296

• dispositional optimists: more generalised positive beliefs about the future – they expect good things to happen within every aspect of their lives
• situational optimists tend to have specific positive beliefs about certain events – they expect good things to happen within specific areas of their lives

Question 296

How is situational optimism measured?

Answer 296

assessing expectations about outcomes that are linked to particular contexts (or situations). - items vary from context to context

Question 296

How does Synder (1994) define hope?

Answer 296

an individual’s expectations that goals can be achieved.

Question 296

What are the two components of hope in addition to the goal?

Answer 296

Agency and pathways

Question 296

How are agency and pathways conceptualised in the context of hope?

Answer 296

• agency: an individual’s determination that goals can be achieved
  individual’s beliefs that successful plans
• pathways: strategies can be generated to reach goals

Question 296

How are goals defined by Snyder?

Answer 296

mental targets to ourselves that we feel we can achieve that differ in length and importance without any certainty

Question 296

How do low-hope and high-hope individuals differ?

Answer 296

low-hope individuals usually tend to have only one goal, high-hope about six accompanied by more clarity as they’re better at finding alternative pathways

Question 296

What are the three qualifiers of a high-hope person?

Answer 296

1. many, clearly defined goals
2. ability to come up with routes to these goals and this usually involves generating several different routes to achieve the goal (pathways).
3. ability to motivate themselves in the pursuit of those goals (agency).

Question 297

The theory of hope is special because

Answer 297

It considers that people want to execute their goals

Question 297

What are the three forms of false hope?

Answer 297

1. Expectancies that are based on illusions instead of reality
2. Inappropriate goals
3. Poor strategies to reach the desired goals.

Question 297

What is a potential reasonfor social learning occurring?

Answer 297

• Strategically useful (efficient shortcut for learning about or environment)

Question 297

What are the benefits of social learning (imitation)?

Answer 297

• imitation> social glue improving relationships and evaluation of interactions
• can lead to prosocial behaviour

Question 297

What is the purpose of an automatic imitation task?

Answer 297

Exploring the question of whether imitation is learned behaviour or inherited

Question 297

What does it make more sense to look at whether it can be taught not to imitate?

Answer 297

• Because the reversed option is impractical
• if we see some influences in terms of the principles of learning theory in this aspect of imitation, we can conclude that they play a role in learning to imitate

Question 297

Define social learning.

Answer 297

learning about other people or the inanimate world through the observation of, or interaction with, another individual or its products

Question 297

Explain asocial learning.

Answer 297

learning about other agents or the inanimate world that is not influenced by observation of, or interaction with, another individual or its products

Question 297

What do social and asocial learning have in common?

Answer 297

• neither social learning nor asocial learning includes cases in which learning is mediated by language or other forms of symbolic communication.
  –> no teaching, signalling and communication

Question 297

What is the key argument in Heyes’s paper?

Answer 297

Considering cognitive processes distinguishing asocial and social learning to emerge, the input mechanisms are biased towards channels through which we administer social information

Question 297

How are social learning taxonomies behaviourist?

Answer 297

They focus on the resulting processes of neurocognitive mechanisms, i.e. the behaviour exhibited, instead of explaining said processes

Question 298

Intraspecific and Interspecific variations are

Answer 298

Variations in social and asocial learning can be accounted for with the hypotheses that the same mechanisms (intra) or distinct mechanisms evolving together (inter)

Question 298

How does imitation align with operant conditioning?

Answer 298

For example, as a visitor in your house, I might see you using your foot to close a particular cabinet door and then begin to use my foot to close that door. This would be R-S observational learning or goal-directed imitation if what I had learned from observing your behaviour was a relationship between a response (foot movement) and its outcome (door closing). It would be S-R observational learning, or blind imitation if what I had learned was a relationship between a stimulus (a distinctive feature of the door) and a response (foot movement)

Question 298

What is an automatic imitation task?

Answer 298

• human participants are required to perform body movements in response to arbitrary stimuli, but the arbitrary stimuli are accompanied by photographic images of the body movements in the response set
• Reaction time is an indicator of whether they’re imitating

Question 298

What is unconscious mimicry?

Answer 298

People unconsciously mimic body language eg → blind S-R imitation

Question 299

What are the two aspects of automatic imitation?

Answer 299

1. Simple action replicated without intention
2. Familiar action

Question 299

What are input mechanisms vs. learning mechanisms?

Answer 299

psychological input mechanisms supply the cognitive system with information that is encoded by learning mechanisms for long-term storage.

Question 300

What is the role of digestive processes compared to learning processes?

Answer 300

• Digestive: sustain energy and growth,
• Learning: support durable changes in behaviour.

Question 300

What is ontogenetical specialisation in contrast to phylogenetical one?

Answer 300

Organisms being more attentive to social stimuli as a consequence of their prior experience with these stimuli

Question 300

What is the adaptive specialisation of input mechanisms?

Answer 300

evidence that highly social animals are superior to less social animals in a social learning task but not in a comparable asocial learning task

Question 301

What is meant by adaptive specialisation?

Answer 301

Social channels or any channels that through evolution, have become specialised to receive information from others (input mechanisms)

Question 301

Which personal factors were highlighted by Bandura?

Answer 301

Cognition, emotion, biology → significantly different from traditional learning theory and behaviourism

Question 301

What, according to Bandura, is at the core of behavioural change?

Answer 301

Social modelling and observational learning

Question 301

What are the key points of Templeton’s critique?

Answer 301

even if the learning (long-term encoding) was done by identical mechanisms, observer birds that were better able to see what the demonstrators were doing— by virtue of perceptual, attentional, or motivational biases—would show superior performance in the social, but not in the asocial, learning tasks

social and asocial learning tasks: birds were given an equal opportunity to learn how to remove the covers by trial and error— by manipulating the covers themselves. In the social tasks the birds had, in addition, an opportunity to obtain information about the covers and the food beneath by observing conspecifics removing the covers and consuming the food

Question 301

What is Bandura’s point about personal and proxy agency?

Answer 301

• personal: the belief that you can change things to make them better for yourself or others
• proxy: enlisting others to change one’s life but

Question 301

How do the downsides of proxy agency manifest and affect the collective?

Answer 301

in one’s passivity leading to collective agency (group enforces change)

Question 301

What is forethought?

Answer 301

Innately human ability to be aware of the consequences of our actions

Question 301

What are methods to manipulate self-efficacy?

Answer 301

1. Exposure
2. Performing
3. Improving
4. Vicarious experiences –> if they can, so can I
5. Participant modelling

Question 301

Why is Bandura critical of global self-efficacy measurements?

Answer 301

Few people are confident about every aspect of their lives in terms of performance

Question 302

What is the role of reinforcement in observational learning?

Answer 302

Not necessary: noticing attention-grabbing adverts → purchasing the product later (self-reinforced behaviour: evaluating own behaviour)

Question 302

What is the incentive factor?

Answer 302

The motivation to learn is controlled by forethought and traditional learning cues → readiness to learn

Question 303

What strategies are important for children’s development when social modelling is not reinforced?

Answer 303

For goal achievement:
1. internal self-regulatory processes
2. self-criticism
3. self-praise
4. valuation of own personal standards
5. re-evaluation of own personal standards if necessary
6. self-persuasion, evaluation of attainment
7. acceptance of challenges

Question 303

Reasoning (Thurstone)

Answer 303

Ability in inductive and deductive reasoning

Question 303

What is self-efficacy?

Answer 303

your belief that if you perform some behaviour, it will get you a desired positive outcome (varies according to context)
Reinforces behaviour and particular outcomes

Question 303

What is the research goal when a nomothetic approach is used?

Answer 303

identifying basic structures of a concept and the minimum amount of traits required to account for global explanations

Question 303

Perceptual speed (Thurstone)

Answer 303

ability to perceive details, anomalies and similarities in visual stimuli

Question 303

What is the research goal when an idiographic approach is used?

Answer 303

in-depth understanding of the individual

Question 303

What is the key idea of idiographic approaches?

Answer 303

emphasise the uniqueness of individuals

Question 303

Associative memory (Thurstone)

Answer 303

ability for rote memory

Question 304

What are the categories in Gardner’s account of multiple intelligence (1995)

Answer 304

1. Linguistic
2. Logical-mathematical
3. Spatial
4. Musical
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Naturalist + 9. Existentialist (later added)

Question 304

What is the key idea of nomothetic approaches?

Answer 304

emphasises the similarities between groups of individuals because individuals are only unique in their combination of traits

Question 304

Space (Thurstone)

Answer 304

ability to transform spatial figures mentally

Question 304

Number (Thurstone)

Answer 304

ability to carry out mathematical operations

Question 304

Verbal comprehension (Thurstone)

Answer 304

ability in reading, comprehension and analogies

Question 304

Word fluency (Thurstone)

Answer 304

ability to generate and use large numbers of words

Question 304

What was the conditioned response in Siegel’s (2016) heroin overdose mystery?

Answer 304

homeostatic counterreaction that leads to the diminished effect of heroin

Question 304

What was the unconditioned stimulus in Siegel’s (2016) heroin overdose mystery?

Answer 304

heroin

Question 304

What was the conditioned stimulus in Siegel’s (2016) heroin overdose mystery?

Answer 304

all cues present at the time of heroin consumption

Question 304

What was the direct response to the heroin in Siegel’s (2016) heroin overdose mystery?

Answer 304

nothing. neither ur nor cr

Question 304

What was the unconditioned response in Siegel’s (2016) heroin overdose mystery?

Answer 304

the homeostatic counterreaction reducing the effect of the physiological changes brought on by heroin

Question 305

What are the standard features of a good intelligence test (Sattler, 2002)?

Answer 305

• variety of subtests helps gain a better understanding of intelligence
• standardised administration → adjusting length and level of difficulty; comfortable conditions
• Norm referencing → comparability of similar demographic (big sample)

Question 306

What are the functions of IQ testing?

Answer 306

• Selection (academic placement, predictive measure for job opportunities)
• Diagnosis (psychometric test evaluating learning disabilities)
• Evaluation (schools)

Question 307

What are six fundamental issues of IQ tests?

Answer 307

1. Constructed in a way that scales correlate with each other and subcategories that are outliers are excluded
2. Results fluctuate across time (15 points: Benson 2003)
3. Challenged by positive correlation Jones & Bayley 1941 stable IQ in childhood
4. Deary et al. 77-year follow-up study r=.73
5. Fundamental issues with face, concurrent and predictive validity
6. Unclear means to measure all learning disabilities: can’t pinpoint