PL1025: Learning, Personality & Intelligence Flashcards

Question

Category

Answer 1

A set of objects in the world that can be grouped together

Answer 2

Process of placing concepts into groups called categories, based on their characteristic features

Answer 3

A mental representation of a category, used for a variety of cognitive functions including memory, reasoning, and using language. A classical view is that concepts provide definitions of their corresponding category.

Answer 4

The degree to which features/elements of an object or stimulus ‘match’ one another (Braisby & Gellatly, 2012).

Answer 5

The degree to which an object or stimulus is the best or most representative example of a category or concept

Answer 6

In a PDP network , a pattern of activity that arises across a layerof hidden units. When a network is presented with a given input, the pattern of activity arising across its hidden layer is the internal representation of that input. ## Footnote *See The Connectionist approach slides in Topic 7

Answer 7

Hidden and theoretical gateways between input and output that represent differentiated partterns of activation

Answer 8

the brain does not function in a series of activities but rather performs a range of activities at the same time, parallel to each other.

Answer 9

Semantic information is not stored as such but instead is reconstructed in response to probes in a process called pattern completion.

Answer 10

psychodynamic

Answer 11

* extra/introversion * sensing/ thinking * feeling/ intuition | Basis for the Myers-Briggs indicator

Answer 12

Aim to combine Freud and Adler's theories because people both incorporated extraverted and introverted components

Answer 13

trait approach and factor analytic approach

Answer 14

* openness * conscientiousness * extraversion * agreeableness * neuroticism | OCEAN

Answer 15

Allport assumed that important personality descriptors were linguistically encoded and indicated by frequent use

Answer 16

Cattell used a factor analysis to group and reduce the list of personality traits based on participants' ratings on the degree to which words applied to them. This led to 16 personality factors

Answer 17

they had participants complete two questionnaires and used the results to reduce the 16 factors to 5 factors/traits

Answer 18

trait approach, biological approach

Answer 19

* sensation-seeking, sociable and assertive * tense, anxious, moody, irrational * impulsive, aggressive, antisocial, creative

Answer 20

the importance of genes, biological determinants of personality, neural causes of extraversion, neuroticism

Answer 21

Ascending Reticular Activating System

Answer 22

Extraverted: underaroused reticulo-cortical circuit leads to sensation seeking Introverted: overaroused reticulo-cortical circuit leads to avoidance of stimulating situations

Answer 23

* Overarousal of reticulo-limbic circuit: low threshold for emotional stability and easy emotional arousal neuroticism * Underarousal of reticulo-limbic circuit: emotional stability

Answer 24

* personality is the result of variations in the behavioural approach system (BAS), behavioural inhibition system (BIS) and fight-flight system

Answer 25

motivates to seek rewards --> impulsivity

Answer 26

anxiety because it motivates to avoid and be sensitive to punishment

Answer 27

* incomplete account of how personality develops * unclear, not parsimonious explanation * low reliability and difficult to test but there are multiple tests * large heuristic value

Answer 28

* validity of biological claims: weak relationship between arousal measured by EEG and neuroticsm (Mathhews & Gilliand, 1999) * psychoticism precise enough to be measurable? * are three factors comprehensive enough to describe personality?

Answer 29

* atheoretical and data driven but syill aims to explain * validity of lexical approach * representativeness of the traits * personality trait measures statistically account for 10% of variance in observed behaviour so how comprehensive is the theory really (Mischel, 1968)

Answer 30

* Description: simplify, clarify or identify important issues * Explanation: help understand why behaviour * Empirical Validity: generating predictions that can be empirically tested * Parsimony: few use of terms of the explanatory concepts included * Comprehensiveness: breadth of a theory (e.g. explaining normal & abnormal behaviour * Heuristic Value: stimulate new research? * Applied Value: practical usefulness in a wider context -> beneficial changes * Testable Concepts: ability to operationalise concepts of a theory -> reliably measurable?

Answer 31

fundamental units of personality representing dispositional responses conditional probability of a category of behaviours in a category of context (Mischel, 1999)

Answer 32

produce descriptive models of personality traits (no explanation) based on lexical hypothesis: differences in personality are important for social interaction so they have been assigned lables that are used in varying frequency and abundace which denotes the cultural relevancy

Answer 33

difference in serverity: antisocial behaviour + high self-esteem vs. emotional unstability

Answer 34

Wilhelm Wundt (1874) when he revisted the four temperaments and reorganised them into dimensions (unchangable/changable, emotional/unemotional)

Answer 35

usage of important psychological mechanisms vs. lack of consistent evidence (more assumed importance and oversimplification of ARAS, BAS/BIS)

Answer 36

theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly unconscious between the different structures of the personality Jungian (Follower of Freud; applies to psychoanalysis too)

Answer 37

assumes that biological factors influence our behavior and mental well-being in a cause-and-effect include genes, influence one is predisposed to some conditions, CNS rely on empirical findings (experiments, falsibility) meaning they are provable opposed to psychodynamic approaches

Answer 38

used to regroup variables into a limited set of clusters, known as factors.

Answer 39

A mental concept that influences behaviour via the mind-body interaction.

Answer 40

Jung’s model of personality describes such a wide range of structures within personality, many with overlapping functions and it is unclear how they relate

Answer 41

The nomothetic approach is based upon the assumption that there is a finite set of variables in existence that can be used to describe human personality.

Answer 42

Thoughts, memories and dreams

Answer 43

It is a multivariate data reduction statistical technique

Answer 44

A., C., D.

Answer 45

Allport,Cattell, Costa & McCrae

Answer 46

innate interest and relevance to daily life

Answer 47

R.J. Stenberg (2001)

Answer 48

French Ministry of Public Instruction commissioned him to provide techniques to predict children’s success and which ones require special education (Simon & Binet, 1905)

Answer 49

Binet-Simon testing used on Californian children → age norms didn’t fit (Terman, 1916)

Answer 50

wanting to set out to estimate the intelligence of children in his area (Spearman, 1904/1927)

Answer 51

"Spearman didn’t prove his idea of g" (Thurstone)

Answer 52

"G has two separate components" (R.B. Cattell)

Answer 53

educational psychologist → traditional intelligence testing incomprehensive and not applicable in the educational setting (Gardner, 1983/ 1996)

Answer 54

(mental age/ biological age)*100

Answer 55

underlying intelligence required for all types = abstract ability to recognise relationships between objects, events, information and make inferences

Answer 56

type of intelligence for specific tasks (vocabulary, mathematical, spatial

Answer 57

reasoning and problem solving skills vs. factual knowledge/ stored information

Answer 58

layperson’s ideas and conceptualisation of the defining qualities of intelligence

Answer 59

alignment of mental age and developmental age leading to increased or decreased ability to perform daily tasks ranging in difficulty

Answer 60

intelligence is made up of specific abilities and general intelligenceg: (mental energy) ability to see relationships and draw inferences → influences ‘s’

Answer 61

‘G’ results from seven mental abilities

Answer 62

‘G’ is made up of an dynamic interaction of crystallised and fluid intelligence whereby represents our factual knowledge and the other problem solving/ critical thinking skills

Answer 63

intelligence is the sum of processes that can take place different intelligences reside in different parts of the brain (?)

Answer 64

asking one group of people to list behaviours that were characteristic of intelligence, academic intelligence, everyday intelligence or unintelligence, asking another group of people to rate how well each of those behaviours reflected intelligence.

Answer 65

Verbal ability, Practical Problem-Solving, Social Competence

Answer 66

How well the child should do at that age The performance of children of the same age

Answer 67

Wechsler Tests (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale & Wechsler Scale for Children 1955) Raven's progressive matrices (1938)

Answer 68

estimate of the average proportion of variance for any behaviour, thought to be accounted for by genetic factors across the population how far variability in phenotypic variance is attributable to genotypic variance.

Answer 69

possibility of comparing different types of genetic makeup to compare genetic influence because different types of twins share different proportions of genes dizygotic 50% monozygotic 100%

Answer 70

on their own not insightful potentially because all children share an estimated average of 50 per cent of their genes withtheir parents and their siblings using observation, interview or questionnaire measuresalso presents a problem because similarities betweenpersonalities might be because of environmental influence(e.g. an extraverted son might be like his extraverted father

Answer 71

looks at the relationships between genes, environment and behaviour estimating the extent of genetic heritability of behaviour across a population; stating the genetic heritability of that behaviour in terms of shared variance

Answer 72

two dimensions that determine heritability: the genetic part and (2) the environment (outdated for genetic heritability) E+G= 100

Answer 73

Sir Francis Galton's investigation into whether intelligence runs in families (1869 Hereditary Genius). His findings promted him to consider the influence of one's environment (asked fellow members of the Royal Society about the socioeconomic status of their parents) and suggested that intelligence is governed by the dichotomy of nature vs. nature , which he concluded would be best explored by twin and adoption studies (1875).

Answer 74

Assessment of how any extent of phenotypical manifestations in a child are caused by their genetic inheritance

Answer 75

physical appearance, behaviour, intelligence, personality, observable/measurable properties

Answer 76

Estimated average of genetic heritability across a population taken from samples of studies^2* (rmz-rdz)

Answer 77

Family Studies, Twin Studies, Adoption Studies Plomin 2004

Answer 78

Robert Plomin 2004 on their own they tell us very little about g.i. because children are assumed to share an estimated average of 50% with their siblings and parents similarities found using observation, interview or questionnaire mesures might be because of the environmental influence of the parent -> solution twin and adoption studies

Answer 79

Researchers examine associations between parental and child behaviour within a family

Answer 80

possibility of comparing different types of genetic makeup to compare genetic and environmental influence at the same time because different types of twins share different proportions of genes if two twins show similar behaviours despite being raised in different environments = evidence genetic heritability all these studies are considered when examining genetic inheritance

Answer 81

Heritability estimates doesn't refer to specific individuals but certain populations of people so MZ, DZ, Family members, parents and children

Answer 82

it doesn't mean we inherited this amount from genes but that across a certain population the genetic heritability of a certain trait is estimated at an average of 50%

Answer 83

probability that a percentage of blood relatives exhibited in a particular trait will/does overlap with other scores in a sample => average of all rates is the heritability estimate

Answer 84

In twin studies correlations between MZ are usually twice as high so estimates are derived by doubling the difference in correlations between MZ and DZ

Answer 85

Plomin (1996) & Riemann and De Raad (1998) estimated a moderate heritability of personality from genetic factors, accounting for between 20 and 50 per cent of phenotypic variance. | P.199

Answer 86

correlations for MZ reared apart are greater than for DZ reared together and apart suggests a genetic influence on personality for both extraversion and neuroticism

Answer 87

40-50% |Pedersen et al. (1988) p.200

Answer 88

Authors such as US psychologists E. E. Maccoby (2000) and Plomin (2004), who researched and later critically suggested that the additive principle of determining heritability of personality (or any phenotype) is not applicable any more or even the concept of genetic inheritability all together.

Answer 89

1. estimating the environment (E) is usually done without utilising any direct measures of environmental factors. Ex.: researchers often compute genetic heritability, and then subtract that from 100 per cent. 2. when genetic heritability is large, it assumes that all environmental factors associated with that behaviour must be small. It is better to see human person- ality as a joint result of an interaction between the individ- ual’s genes and their environmental factors. Consequently, personality should not be seen as the result of ‘Genetics + Environment’ but rather ‘Genetics × Environment’. For example, it is better to view the relative influences of genes and environment on personality as the result of a long-term interaction, with environmental factors triggering certain genetic behaviours and the effects of the environment differing between individuals because of their genetic makeup.

Answer 90

1. Conceptions of heritability and the environment 2. Different types of genetic variance 3. Shared versus non-shared environmental influences 4. The representativeness of twin and adoption studies 5. Assortative mating 6. The changing world of genetics

Answer 91

1. Conceptions of Heritability 2. Different types or genetic variance 3. The representativeness of twin and adoption studies 4. Assortative Mating

Answer 92

genetic variation in behaviour that is the total of the individual's genes inherited from their parents

Answer 93

dominant genetic variance and epistatic genetic variance or interactive genetic variance

Answer 94

process describing (epi)gene expression resulting from environmental factors that either suppress or activate our dispositions

Answer 95

the fact that the CS providesinformation about the US’s arrival

Answer 96

ΔV = αβ(λ – ΣV)

Answer 97

The Rescorla-Wagner model describes the rate of change in associative strength (between stimulusand outcome or response and outcome or stimulus and stimulus) through conditioning.This model focuses on error driven learning.

Answer 98

The effectiveness of US depends on how different it is from what isexpected The amount of learning on a given trial is a function of the surprisevalue of the US (more surprise then more conditioning)

Answer 99

change in associative strength (i.e., the strength of the association between the CS and the US)

Answer 100

α is the salience of the CS, i.e., how much the CS grabs your attention. E.g., the salience of a brightflashing red light should be higher than the salience of a plain red square. With a strong CS, α shouldapproach 1, but with a weaker stimulus α should tend towards 0.

Answer 101

β is the salience or motivational value of the US, the outcome, e.g., the motivational value of chocolateas a US might be higher than the motivational value of lettuce as a US. The more we desire an outcome,the more we will learn about it.

Answer 102

λ is the outcome (the US). This is usually only 1 or 0 – 1 when the outcome or US is present, and 0 whenthe outcome or US is absent.

Answer 103

ΣV is the sum of all the associative strengths of all the stimuli at the beginning of that trial.

Answer 104

role of surprise

Answer 105

the strengthof the connection between internal representations of the CS and the US… theassociative strength of the CS.

Answer 106

This means that if two cues are trainedin compound, they will compete for associative strength with the pairedoutcome

Answer 107

A conditioned inhibitor is a stimulus that predicts the absence of an outcome.

Answer 108

This cannot be established simply by pairing a stimulus with no outcome, as that would just result in nolearning.

Answer 109

in a conditioned inhibition paradigm, remove the reward when the stimulus is presented after it's trained

Answer 110

1. the equation allows qualitative predictions 2. heuristic value for other associative learning theories 3. helped with understanding numerous psychological processes | The model provides a good account of many of the facts of compound conditioning, BUT not all the effects associated with blocking and overshadowing are consistent with it. What are the strengths

Answer 111

1. no adequate account for the role of surprise when blocking is considered 2. no adequate account of extinction 3. inappropriate account for discrimination 4. inhibition is conceptualised as negative associative strength

Answer 112

When individual cells are activated at the same time, they establish connecting synapses or strengthen existing onesand thus become a functional unit. These are the structuralbases of memory.

Answer 113

specialised junction through which neural signals are transmitted from one neuron (the presynaptic neuron) to another (the postsynaptic neuron)

Answer 114

increase its effectiveness as a result of simultaneous activity in the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons. Such synapses are essential for many kinds of associative learning.

Answer 115

main form of synaptic plasticity reflecting theactivity of synaptic information storage processes, and has been identified as the likelycellular correlate of learning and memory

Answer 116

One or more axons connected to a dendrite act as source for stimuli -> sudden and strong stimulation leaves some synapses depolarised/potentiated (more responsive to more stimuli) for varying amount of time

Answer 117

The response to axon 2 is initially weak. Briefly pairing it withrapid stimulation in axon 1 strongly depolarizes the dendrite.Afterward, the response to axon 2 (as well as axon 1) is enhanced.

Answer 118

This relates to learning, as previous experience has led to a long-term change inthe behaviour of the synapse, and it can be argued that this is related to surprise asthis is a result of a ‘burst of intense stimulation’ – a difference in what was expected(i.e. a prediction error).

Answer 119

dopaminergic neurons exhibitburst activity, also known as ‘phasic activation,’following primary food and liquid rewards and conditioned visual, auditory, and somatosensory reward-predicting stimuli

Answer 120

no dopamine activity to the CS, because lacking association with the reward outcome or US -> dopaminergic neurons shift towards CS after successive trials -> after dopamine reaction only to CS not to outcome/reward or US

Answer 121

When the light, the blocked predictor, was presented with no reward in the test stage, shown asblocking Group A in the table, they saw no dopamine activity Had an association been learnt between the noise and the light, we would expect to see increased dopamineactivity to the presentation of the light, and a depression of dopamine activity when no reward is presented . ➜ That this did not occur supports the findings of the blocking paradigm, as the prior learning about the noise atstage one ‘blocked’ the learning about the light at stage two, and this provides support for the role of dopamine insignalling prediction error.

Answer 122

For blocking Group B, when a reward was presented after the light, there was dopamine activity to thereward. Had an association been learnt between the light and the reward, then we would have expected to see increased dopamine activity to the light, not the reward . ➜ That this did not occur supports the findings of the blocking paradigm, as the prior learning about the noise atstage one ‘blocked’ the learning about the light at stage two, and this provides support for the role of dopamine insignalling prediction error.

Answer 123

1. no exact replication with punishment or aversive outcome 2. Would dopamine still fire in the original experiment

Answer 124

1. the observed pattern does support the role of dopamine signalling prediction error 2. prediction error regards learning in general and is not limited to learning about rewarding outcomes

Answer 125

Conditioned Compensatory Responses

Answer 126

UR is NOT the effect of the drug, it is the bodily process that addresses the effect of the drug – the body’s RESPONSE CS all stimuli or contextual cues associated with the drug => illicits body's indirect response

Answer 127

a drug is the directresponse that the drug causes, i.e. a rush, depression of respiration.

Answer 128

homeostatic counter-response that acts to diminish the direct effects of the drug. These homeostatic counter-responses are the responses that enter into conditioning.

Answer 129

cues remainconstant prior to the drug arriving intothe body, the conditioned compensatoryresponse (beta response) bothdiminishes the body’s level of reactivity tothe drug – the drug is expected andprocessed more efficiently, thus its effectsare attenuated (less pleasure)

Answer 130

1. Cues = elicit a conditioned compensatory response. 2. For example, cues associated with heroin will elicit the conditioned compensatory responses of “despair,” increased pain sensitivity and increased frequency of breathing (which can make individuals feel anxious). 3. The conditioned compensatory responses are all highly aversive. 4. In the presence of cues associated with a drug, an individual will experience the negative/aversive-conditioned compensatory responses, and may then be motivated to take the drug simply to alleviate them

Answer 131

Fails to address the complexity of human behaviour, and too heavily based on animal studies.

Answer 132

Behaviour is learned• Individual difference in behaviour is the result of differentlearning experiences that people have had and thesituations in which they find themselves

Answer 133

“A long lasting change in behaviour that results fromexperience”

Answer 134

it is –learning NOT to respond to an unimportant event

Answer 135

a way to learn about cause-effect relations between environmental events

Answer 136

Sequence and Timing

Answer 137

Present bell with no food following* ➜ reversal of conditioning process* ➜ extinction (association isundone)

Answer 138

Intensity of US -> rapidness of learning Timing -> Optimal: Presentation of the CS occurs shortly before the US

Answer 139

The strength of the connection between internal representationsof the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus which determines the strength ofthe conditioned response (the Rescorla-Wagner model outlines this).

Answer 140

Theease with which the strength of a conditioned response to a stimulus can beincreased by subsequent conditioning.

Answer 141

Difference betweenwhat you expected to happen and what actually happens

Answer 142

The temporal and spatial(time & space) relationship between events can influence the strength ofassociation. (arriving at the same time)

Answer 143

Thedegree to which the US occurs during the presentation of the CS.

Answer 144

* Positive: US is more likely present than the absent * Negative: US is more likely absent than the present * zero: US is equally likely during the presence and the absence of the CS.

Answer 145

* Positive CS-UScontingency --> excitatory conditioning * Negative CS-UScontingency --> inhibitory learning.

Answer 146

Kamin's (1969) blocking effect study demonstrates thatconditioning to a stimulus could be blocked if the stimulus were reinforced incompound with a previously conditioned stimulus. A+, AB+, B+ = blocked conditioning of B

Answer 147

When the associative strength of individual stimuli are presented together, the individual strengths are added together.

Answer 148

If two cues are trained in compound, they will compete for associative strength with the paired outcome, so that if we train AB+, the strength of association that develops between A and the outcome, will be weaker than the association between stimulus and outcome if we trained C+.

Answer 149

The disruption of conditioning with one stimulus because of the presence of another stimulus. -> stronger conditioned stimulus will overshadow a weaker one

Answer 150

The body usually tries to maintain a state of homeostasis. When people use drugs, the body and brain learn to counteract the effects of the drug upon presentation of conditioned stimuli (cues, e.g. needle) and respond to produce physiological reactions that are opposite to that of the drug (see Siegal paper)

Answer 151

is demonstrated. At first, the word can by itself causes no special response. After repeated pairings of the word can and the water, the word by itself gradually becomes more likely to cause a CR.

Answer 152

occurs when words that sound like can (e.g., cam, ban, ran, cap) lead to a CR.

Answer 153

occurs when different stimulus words produce differences in the CRs. In the demonstration, CRs are strongest and most likely to occur after the word can. They are weakest and least likely to occur after stimulus words that do not sound at all like can (e.g., dish, board, smoke).

Answer 154

has occurred after extinction when a long string of words in which can is not included is followed by the word can, and the word can again causes a CR. Such a string occurs near the end of the demonstration.

Answer 155

is demonstrated at the end of the list, where the word can and a squirt are again paired. At this point, fewer trials are needed to achieve strong, reliable CRs compared with the original acquisition at the beginning of the list.

Answer 156

Psychopathology = learned maladaptiveresponse to a situationthat may have generalised to other situations orsimilar stimuli ➜ it could beunlearned (systematic desensitisation, aversion therapy)

Answer 157

Instrumental/operant conditioning tells us about the relations between environmental stimuli and our own behaviour: 1. There is an outcome that reinforces behaviour 2. There is a relationship between response and outcome.

Answer 158

The term ‘operant’ refers to the fact that anorganism learns through responding: throughoperating on the environment.

Answer 159

If an action/response is encountered with aversive or positive measures the response might be weakened

Answer 160

Critique : ‘Satisfaction’ is too mentalistic, and implieswe can observe and measure subjective feelings Impact : Law of Effect stimulated experimental studiesaimed at understanding behaviour - environmentinteraction

Answer 161

Watson was influenced by Pavlov’s work.He argued that, given the correct stimuli, the organismcould learn to behave (give responses) in a specificway, just how Pavlov’s dogs had ‘learned’ to associatethe bell with the appearance of food.

Answer 162

* Something is added to increase behaviour (reward) = positve * A behaviour that removes a negative outcome is introduced (applying sunscreen not to get sunburned) = negative

Answer 163

* positve punishment: decreasing behaviour by introducing unfavourable outcome (screaming) * negative punishment: decreasing behaviour by removing privilege (taking attention away)

Answer 164

Not everyrecurrent of a response isreinforced

Answer 165

*knowing that after filling each cart they'll be rewarded

Answer 166

* they are consciously controlled * the response leads to an outcome * with repetition they become habitual

Answer 167

1. Determining whether the behaviourcontinues in the absence of theoutcome 2. Determining whether the behaviourcontinues when the outcome isdevalued…

Answer 168

Immediately after the light and not after the reward to proof that there's not learning

Answer 169

A discrimination inwhich an outcome isdelivered during acompound of twostimuli, but not duringone of the stimuliby itself.

Answer 170

A discrimination inwhich an outcome isdelivered during acompound of twostimuli, but not duringeither stimulusby itself.

Answer 171

A hypothetical stimulus that is assumed to be created by presenting two stimuli together. Different pairs of stimuli are assumed to create different configural cues.

Answer 172

Configural models claim that that learning occurs only for a compound AB while elemental models assume that for a compound AB learning occurs for both elements A & B so the association is summed up.

Answer 173

under the consideration of their own behaviour through operating on the environment

Answer 174

Edward Thorndike 1898

Answer 175

Hungry cat in a puzzle box Escape to eat if it operated a latch that opened the door First random behaviour Then accidental operation of door until it became a deliberate action learning by trial and accidental success

Answer 176

Aim study the concept of classical conditioning, more specifically conditioned emotional responses on people (fear) Method Albert initially did not display a fear of laboratory rats (9 months), producing a startled and fearful response to a loud noise made by banging a hammer on a metal bar (UCS that causes the UCR fear). Albert began to reach for a rat, the noise was made behind his head. Repeated → generalised fear of other white, furry objects paired the rat with the noise seven times in two sessions, one week apart.When the rat was presented on its own, Albert became distressed and avoided the rat. Five days later, Alben was exposed to a number of other objects such as familiar wooden blocks, a rabbit, a dog, a sealskin coat, white cotton, the heads of Watson and two assistants, a Santa Claus mask and a packet of cocoon wool Result conditioned to fear rats in the absence to the noise Important First experiment and successful attempt at conditioning fear in human first experiment in which fear was experimentally conditioned in a human being

Answer 177

too subjective to lend itself to scientific investigation. Inner thoughts and psychodynamic processes don't cause behaviour

Answer 178

the objective study of behaviour and the stimuli which produce such behaviour

Answer 179

Exclusively limited to measurable explicit (seen by eye) and measurable implicit behaviours (using measurement technology, e.g. skin conductance, saliva)

Answer 180

It stems from developmentally learned maladaptive responses. Physiological responses correlating to anxiety are due to a change in preparatory behaviour when presented with a stressful stimulus and not personality

Answer 181

Caused by feedback loops of genetic inheritance and situational determinats which were reinforced in the course of evolution. This means individual differences are due to genes.

Answer 182

Humans aim to produce pleasant and to avoid painful events. Even private internal behaviour is not caused by emotions but said desire. Intentions are responses to internal stimuli.

Answer 183

1. too simplistic for more learning conditions because it's only a stimulus followed by response 2. doesn't answer what happens after response 3. Reinforcement?

Answer 184

Result: learning occurs despite varied reinforcement schedules there is a lever of some sort that the animal in the course of exploring the box will press at some point. animal is rewarded with food. an electronic device attached to the lever to record the animal’s rate of pressing. after the bar pressing had resulted in the animal being reinforced with food, the rate at which the animal pressed the bar increased.

Answer 185

reinforcing any behaviour that successively approximates the desired response ⇒ rewards only if it gradually aligns with the wished response i.e. the gradual association process.

Answer 186

because not every situation constitutes to the reinforcement of a response so the varying ratio or interval doesn't initially signal extinction

Answer 187

stimulus enhancement | social

Answer 188

observational conditioning | social

Answer 189

trial-and-error learning | asocial

Answer 190

learning from communication | asocial

Answer 191

affordance learning | social ## Footnote observer learns how objects work (the ‘affordances’ of the objects) by observing others' interaction

Answer 192

emulation | social ## Footnote copying the outcome of another's person actions

Answer 193

object movement re-enactment | social ## Footnote copying the movement of an object not necessarily the action itself

Answer 194

innovation | asocial

Answer 195

individual learning | asocial ## Footnote learning through gradual feedback from the outcome

Answer 196

imitation (social)

Answer 197

learning from teaching

Answer 198

behaviour of others (not via observation) or input information coming in is intended to teach vs asocial learning means learning about something by oneself not based on what others do

Answer 199

You're not directly learning through observation but through the deliberate instruction (communication) through others

Answer 200

sexual behaviours, fight & flight, hibration & migration, eating & drinking, baby suckling and baby crying

Answer 201

1. Depends on experience 2. Useful in moderate degrees; too much means failure to discriminate between stimuli 3. Experience and associative learning influences discrimination between stimuli

Answer 202

Length of schooling Test-taking sophistication: understanding and getting used to IQ tests as their incorporated into schooling → impact on non-verbal intelligence? Only 5 points increase when retaking Child-rearing: educational programmes Head start program for disadvantaged children: significant immediate gains but asymptotic curve Visual and technical environment: adverts are more subtle, learning through complicated visual materials → little evidence Nutrition

Answer 203

Learning to imitate would have resulted in longer time needed to react

Answer 204

1. concepts are definitions of categories are undermined by arguments that many categories cannot be defined and cannot readily explain typicality effects, borderline cases, and intransitivity 2. People may categorise things in different ways according to their goals and the nature of their knowledge so as to fit the claims of different theories 3. Different types of categories have different properties and so may require different theoretical treatments

Answer 205

similarity to the prototype, which also explains the typicality

Answer 206

* cannot explain the context-sensitivity of typicality * does not explain how prototypes might combine in complex concepts * the unsettled nature of whether the existence of typicality effects implies a prototype organization

Answer 207

can explain the non-independence of attributes in concepts and dissociations between categorization and similarity while offering an account for similarity

Answer 208

it is not clear how theories might combine complex concepts, and the notion of a theory is unspecified

Answer 209

Personality is viewed as the result of the specific responses that, when repeated, may lead to habitual responses which inform how a supertraits manifests. Personality consists of supertraits | Specific Response --> Habitual Response --> Supertrait --> Personality

Answer 210

stable/long-lasting organization of one's character, temperament, intelligence, physique, and nervous system

Answer 211

personality type = spectrum of correlated traits, including Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism

Answer 212

1. People perceive and evaluate the intelligence of themselves, and others to inform their actions in the real world. 2. can lead to more formal theories and investigations using the scientific method 3. avenues for researchers to explore possibly false explicit and formal theories 4. can inform theories around intelligence in terms of how it develops and/or any cross-cultural differences

Answer 213

wide vocabulary can converse on most topics

Answer 214

1. fluid thought 2. practical problem-solving ability 3. intellectual balance and integration 4. contextual intelligence 5. verbal ability 6. goal orientation and attainment

Answer 215

identifying correct and wrong answers, tends to see attainable goals and accomplish them

Answer 216

ability to understand and interpret environment; learning, remembering

Answer 217

recognising connections and distinctions

Answer 218

tends to obtain + use the information for specific purposes

Answer 219

fluid thought

Answer 220

* Primary reinforcers/punishers are biologically significant stimuli that are naturally appetitive or aversive. * Secondary or conditioned reinforcers/punishers are appetitive or aversive as a result of being associated with primary reinforcers/punishers.

Answer 221

Deprivations of any kind always result in cognitive decline

Answer 222

nutrition hypothesis vs. cognitive stimulation hypothesis

Answer 223

Intelligence is increased with good nutrition, as are height, lifespan, and health

Answer 224

higher intelligence scores are derived from improvements in cognitive stimulation (improved schooling, visual)

Answer 225

* bad nutrition: mode of the bell curve of intelligence should be noticeable (closer to the lower end) * poor stimulation: all levels should rise across generations

Answer 226

* IQ scores after children leave the program fall * underprivileged children return to the same environment, which might contribute to these effects * questionable lasting educational benefits

Answer 227

* France, Netherlands, Denmark, USA, Spain, Norway * Proof only for 3 countries Denmark, Spain, Norway

Answer 228

Is not as important as they initially thought, as evidenced by the 15 points gained in non-verbal intelligence and only 9 point difference in verbal intelligence

Answer 229

* Nutrition: Less malnutirioned children in Scandinavia, so less low IQ scores, so little observable Flynn effect * Child-rearing: more stimulating, but off-time is spent less stimulating (Flynn no proof)

Answer 230

Because it focuses on the qualitative statements

Answer 231

* The associative strength of a CS grows, and it becomes a more accurate predictor of the US. * discrepancy (lambda - V) then becomes significant because it indicates the extent to which the US is unexpected or surprising

Answer 232

Factor analysis of questionnaire results of diverse samples

Answer 233

Stamina, passion and perseverance for very long-term goals.

Answer 234

Underresearched but can be supplemented with Carol Dweck’s Growth Mindset

Answer 235

1. context-specific socialisation 2. outside-the-home socialisation 3. transmission of culture via group processes 4. group processes that widen differences between social groups 5. group processes that widen differences among individuals within the group

Answer 236

Twin studies overestimate the influence of genetics, because identical twins may have more similar environments than nonidentical twins.

Answer 237

Adoption agencies may favour placing children in more affluent households with less exposure to sociodemographic adversity. Therefore, the influence of economic status is never explored in these studies.

Answer 238

1. school and education 2. biological variables and maternal effects: nutrition, lead and prenatal factors 3. family environment: shared and nonshared environments within and outside the family factors, social class and socioeconomic status, birth order and family size 4. culture: decontextualisation, quantification and biologisation.

Answer 239

Nessier et al. (1996) found that education is both an independent and dependent variable. School attendance (education as independent variable) is likely to increase intelligence; and increased intelligence is likely to influence your school attendance, the duration of your schooling and the quality of your school (education as dependent variable).

Answer 240

The heritability of IQ increases with age.

Answer 241

1. The CS must predict the presentation of the unconditional stimulus (UCS). That is, the CS must regularly occur prior to the presentation of the UCS. 2. The CS does not regularly occur when the UCS is absent.

Answer 242

Positive reinforcer → the question didn’t ask for UCS/CS

Answer 243

Learning about stimuli in a compound will always result in the components having less associative strength than if they were separately paired with the US -> one is overshadowing the other

Answer 244

If a stimulus with negative associative strength is paired with a US, then conditioning will at first be without apparent an effect, because a number of trials will be needed before the associative strength of the stimulus becomes positive and it can elicit a CR. This effect constitutes a retardation test for conditioned inhibition.

Answer 245

* listen to repeated strings of eight numbers. * same sequence was presented successively, except that a randomly selected member of the list was changed from one trial to the next. * people were tasked to listen to the sequence and identify the new item * Then, driving a car at the same time significantly decreased the accuracy

Answer 246

The orienting response is usually prompted by novel stimuli and results in a subject investing their attention -> implication: vigour of response = attention

Answer 247

Or show that CS conditionability does not only depend on the intensity of US but also or so the attention given to the stimuli

Answer 248

* Two groups of rats were placed into a conditioning chamber containing a light bulb and a food dispenser. * For the first 12 sessions, nothing happened for Group Novel * For Group Familiar the bulb was illuminated for 10 seconds at a time at intervals in each session. * Both groups were then given a single pretest session in which the light was occasionally illuminated for 10 seconds. * Group novel was habituated, also had more intense ORs * Repeated exposure reduced attention paid to it, so group novel should learn more quickly than group familiar → latent inhibition (Lubow, 1973)

Answer 249

* Does not describe an interrupting in conditioning like conditioned inhibition * Conditioned inhibition = You need to condition the absence of the expected US * Latent inhibition can develop in the absence of an expected US latent inhibition disrupts conditioned inhibition

Answer 250

When preexposure to a CS leads to reduced attention paid to the reduced effectiveness of paring the CS with the US

Answer 251

Depend on the context in which the stimulus was exposed Exposure to the same stimuli in the same conditioning chamber is more disruptive there than in a different one

Answer 252

identification of food is difficult; pigeons attend selectively to the features of a single food type to facilitate its discovery (see also Dawkins, 1971a,b).

Answer 253

claim that, during discrimination, animals learn to pay more attention to relevant than irrelevant stimuli

Answer 254

* IDS: (Intradimensional Shift) The selection of two stimuli for discrimination from a dimension that provided two stimuli for earlier discrimination. * EDS: Extradimensional Shift is the selection of two stimuli for a discrimination from a different dimension to one that provides two stimuli for an earlier discrimination.

Answer 255

more likely to occur on the second presentation of a stimulus when the interval between the two presentations is short rather than long

Answer 256

* Best & Gemberling 1977: preexposure trial may well have fostered the growth of a context-flavour association. This would then disrupt conditioning somewhat by ensuring that at least a component of the representation of the flavour was in the A2 state at the time of conditioning

Answer 257

Describes the shift of the peak at which generalisation occurs the most, usually away from inhibitory or other Stimuli and more into the direction of the presented Stimuli

Answer 258

Two modes of attention (simultaneously) * Controlled: limited capacity + directed towards tasks that are novel or require conscious control. This type of attention is referred to as controlled or deliberate * Habitual: more automatic and directed towards tasks that are very well practiced and the performance of which is more or less habitual

Answer 259

the surprising omission of one of a pair of shocks after each compound-conditioning trial was sufficient to disrupt blocking

Answer 260

* Whitlow 1975: response to a repeatedly presented tone was greater on the first than on subsequent sessions of testing. This relatively long-term effect was attributed to the growth of a context-tone association during the first session. Subsequent placement of the rabbits into the apparatus should then partially retrieve an A2 representation of the tone and make them less responsive to it whenever it occurred. Thus, the SOP model predicts that habituation is the result of the interaction of both short-term (self-generated) and long-term (retrieval-generated) processes.

Answer 261

Reinforcement of stimuli that results in them either appearing more similar or distinct from each other because they have similar or different outcomes

Answer 262

* conditioning with the added CS should be normal on the first compound trial. * only on later trials when the added CS is ignored that the effects of blocking become evident — need more trials to show an effect * Experiment showed little change in added cs after second compound conditioning

Answer 263

slower learning that takes place when a CS and US are paired if they have previously been presented randomly with respect to each other (Mackintosh, 1973)

Answer 264

simultaneous rehearsal of representations of the CS and the US while they are both in the Al state

Answer 265

→ the similarity of the outcomes signalled by the stimuli An improvement in the ease with which discrimination between two stimuli can be acquired as a result of prior exposure to the stimuli.

Answer 266

* Latent inhibition should be possible in Pearce-Hall as long as the outcome is changed in intensity or its presentation increments = unreliable p.90 reread * Pearce-Hall's (1980) theory predicts that it should be possible to obtain latent inhibition by repeatedly pairing the CS with the US, as well as repeatedly presenting it by itself. * Mackintosh: tone becomes the best predictor for us

Answer 267

A1 is excited by presenting a memory in correspondence with stimuli → When CS and US are both presented in A1 state and conditioning is complete, the CS will excite the memory of the US in the A2 state So, it describes how CS indirectly cause the activation of an associated representation of a US in A2 state

Answer 268

outcome is delivered during a compound of two stimuli but not during one of the stimuli by itself. (reversal of negative patterning)

Answer 269

Animals need to attend to stimuli only when learning about them; controlled attention -> more automatic attention Surprise determines to what degree attention will be paid and learning consequently occurs (pp. 86-87)

Answer 270

* Elemental: Theories based on the assumption that during conditioning with a compound stimulus, each component of the compound can enter individually into an association with the US. * Configural: when two or more stimuli are presented together for conditioning, only a single association will develop (pp.152–6)

Answer 271

That discrimination will be easier if two sets of stimuli are similar to each other (BC & ABC) than when they’re different (A & ABC)

Answer 272

Hypothetical stimulus X or QX that is part of the compound stimuli that takes on inhibitory properties compared to the CT properties exciting the prior response (p.153)

Answer 273

Peak response to the association between stimuli and outcome occurs not at the stimulus (S+) but further along a gradient away from the other stimulus (S-) that hasn’t been paired with the outcome Yellow gradient, pigeons S+ 550 nanometers and S- 560 nanometers → peak shift at 540 nanometers and responses below

Answer 274

Similarity between reward and nonreward. whether subjects receive preexposure to the stimuli before the discrimination commences

Answer 275

Two groups of chicks in a cool chamber were taught to approach a picture in whose direction was w arm stream of air Group control only received that training G. experimental was preexposed to both images Control group required more training to discriminate between the pictures

Answer 276

* pairing two stimuli with the same outcome should make it difficult subsequently to solve discrimination between them. *pairing two stimuli with different outcomes should have the opposite effect and facilitate discrimination * Perceptual Learning (Delamater 1998)

Answer 277

conditioning, extinction, and testing respectively occur in Contexts A, B, and C (ABC renewal) and A, A, and B (AAB renewal)

Answer 278

Both groups drink a solution containing saline and lemon before being injected with lithium chloride to induce an aversion to the compound. Preexposure to the two compounds resulted in perceptual learning and allowed discrimination

Answer 279

* things belong to categories because they possess certain properties in common. * Possession of the common aspect is important for category membership * Possession of the common properties is sufficient for category membership * e.g. Bachelors (unmarried, adult, male) has multiple categories

Answer 280

* Shows that conditioned responses can transfer onto new

Answer 281

allowing time to elapse after extinction has occurred can allow the behaviour to at least partially return

Answer 282

Goodness of exemplar Typicality rating method

Answer 283

an organism first learns one operant response (e.g., pressing a lever in a Skinner box) and then, while that behaviour is being extinguished, a second “replacement” behaviour is reinforced (e.g., pressing a second lever in the box)

Answer 284

concepts are instead representations of the individual members ( or exemplars) of the category that we have experienced

Answer 285

* Categories seem to group common aspects together, but as a whole, on a specific level, you’ll find no truly common properties like in games * Categories are indefinable

Answer 286

Members of category A also belong to B, B → C = A → C

Answer 287

All members must meet the definition criteria and be equal in their quality as members but there are systematic differences

Answer 288

As long as there is not a significant divergence between it and the prototype =similarity

Answer 289

You do not need to return to an original context for a conditioned behaviour to occur

Answer 290

Born out of the limitations of the classical view and centres the best category member who acts as a representative

Answer 291

Semantic information is not stored as such but is reconstructed in response to probes in a process called pattern completion. These patterns are activated if one tries to retrieve said knowledge, whereby the strength of these connections depends on experience. → Think Hebbian Synapses

Answer 292

Expose the insufficient differentiation between members but not contradict the classical view as a whole because it is all-or-nothing. There are no borderline cases that cannot be clearly distinguished (McCloskey & Glucksberg,1978)

Answer 293

* Concepts organised in a hierarchical order ranging from a general and encompassing superordinate to increasingly specific concepts → Propositions applicable to all members of a superordinate category could be stored only once, at the level of the superordinate category

Answer 294

Inhibition is studied via feature-negative discrimination (X+; XY-) but inhibition to Y is not specific to the original context but transfers without loss over to other contexts in which X is harder to inhibit as XY-

Answer 295

It’s transitive, but peoples’ judgments aren't consistent (Hampton, 1982 Is a car seat furniture?)

Answer 296

Prototype theory allows a degree of mismatch of the qualities while classical theory doesn’t → level of matching = typicality

Answer 297

Exemplar so previous information is hard to ignore

Answer 298

the degree to which an object or stimulus is the best or most representative example of a category or concept

Answer 299

connections are initially set to small random values so that activations produced by a particular input are weak and undifferentiated. The network is trained by presenting it with experiences based on the information contained in Quillian’s hierarchy

Answer 300

The hidden units are not anything physically ‘real’. The are abstract concepts that allow us to capture complex relationships. ➜ They act like gateways between input and output

Answer 301

* Parents use superordinate words more frequently than specific ones * The clustering of objects in the world into tight-knit intermediate-level groups within superordinate categories * the tendency for parents to use intermediate-level words more frequently than more general or more specific words when speaking to children; few items — such as dogs — are discussed far more frequently in such speech than are related items — such as other land animals, birds or fish * All this leads to more weighted connections and more robust networks

Answer 302

In control tasks, sometimes referred to as operant tasks (Dickinson et al., 1984), but also predictive tasks in which participants judge relationships between symptoms and diagnoses, participants have strong a priori expectations that events are associated

Answer 303

Varied intertrial interval

Answer 304

used a contingency judgment task, establishing the contingency between an action and an outcome, that is, the extent to which the action has a causal relationship to the outcome

Answer 305

No action and no outcome, so the table above cell -> increased contingency because they overlap

Answer 306

Even if it failed the definition, it would remain in a category or be defined by the term it referred to (cats from Mars, lions who are lions)

Answer 307

Being depressed makes for realistic inferences as compared to when you’re not

Answer 308

Consistent co-occurrence of a set of properties across different objects. The concept is distinct from simple correlation in that it generally refers to the co-occurrence of more than two properties. For example, having wings, having feathers, having hollow bones and being able to fly all consistently co-occur in birds.

Answer 309

a person has learnt to attribute their failures in situations to internal, stable and global (will be there in every aspect of their life and in all situations) factors

Answer 310

a participant is trying to work out whether the presence of one stimulus or outcome is contingent on another stimulus or action → causal relationship?

Answer 311

People who can accurately judge when outcomes are contingent on their actions can control the occurrence of outcomes or avoid inappropriate behaviour

Answer 312

Habits of thinking that reveal personal explanatory style

Answer 313

The formation of new beliefs or attitudes

Answer 314

way that you explain your problems and setbacks to yourself and choose either a positive or negative way to solve them

Answer 315

state of affairs where you feel there is nothing you can do to affect what happens to you, and life is uncontrollable is at learned

Answer 316

adversity (A): challenge beliefs (B): forming beliefs about adversity consequences (C): of those beliefs

Answer 317

* When is optimism not an ideal way of thinking * Unrealistic plays into biases and heuristics

Answer 318

* Distraction: putting aside the adversity and reevaluating the situation * Avoid the emotional issues and rumina and disassociate these emotions from the issue

Answer 319

1. Speed 2. Ease 3. Amount 4. Reward

Answer 320

Distraction Disputation

Answer 321

After distraction: challenging the emotions previously experienced about the adversity that caused feelings of overwhelmed

Answer 322

as a person’s general predisposition to be optimistic in their mood or their temperament due to genes or personality and not due to learning

Answer 323

* DO expect either favourable/unfavourable vs. LO is used to explain future events being either positive or negative due to opt/pes * DO and DP, therefore, determine whether a person pursues their goals expecting either favourable or poor results and if they keep pursuing them or abandon them

Answer 324

General mood or affective experience and are therefore stable traits that are displayed across periods of time

Answer 325

self-report questionnaire called the Life Orientation Test (LOT) (Originally, four positively and negatively worded items Later extended to filler items and three each)

Answer 326

1. primary or stress appraisals: to assess whether the stress is harmful or useful to us. 2. secondary appraisals or coping strategies:assess whether the stress is harmful or useful to us.

Answer 327

1. Threat – stressful situation = harm the individual. 2. Loss – stressful situation => loss for the person; for example, loss in friendships, health, self-esteem. 3. Challenge – refers to seeing the stressful situation as having the potential for growth or benefits for the individual. (potential benefit)

Answer 328

Threat and loss

Answer 329

* complexity * the individual’s values * commitments and goals * novelty of the situation * social support * intensity of the situation * perceived controllability of the potential threat or loss

Answer 330

* problem-focused coping strategies (sometimes called adaptive or direct coping) are logical coping strategies directed at resolving the stress changing some aspects of the environment and of the self * emotion-focused coping involves coping attempts that are not directed at the stressful event and instead are directed at decreasing emotional distress caused by the stressful event (Rice, 2000).

Answer 331

wishful thinking, venting and expressing emotions, and seeking social support

Answer 332

expectations that an individual generates for a particular situation concerning whether good rather than bad things will happen

Answer 333

* dispositional optimists: more generalised positive beliefs about the future – they expect good things to happen within every aspect of their lives * situational optimists tend to have specific positive beliefs about certain events – they expect good things to happen within specific areas of their lives

Answer 334

assessing expectations about outcomes that are linked to particular contexts (or situations). - items vary from context to context

Answer 335

an individual’s expectations that goals can be achieved.

Answer 336

Agency and pathways

Answer 337

* agency: an individual’s determination that goals can be achieved individual’s beliefs that successful plans * pathways: strategies can be generated to reach goals

Answer 338

mental targets to ourselves that we feel we can achieve that differ in length and importance without any certainty

Answer 339

low-hope individuals usually tend to have only one goal, high-hope about six accompanied by more clarity as they’re better at finding alternative pathways

Answer 340

1. many, clearly defined goals 2. ability to come up with routes to these goals and this usually involves generating several different routes to achieve the goal (pathways). 3. ability to motivate themselves in the pursuit of those goals (agency).

Answer 341

It considers that people want to execute their goals

Answer 342

1. Expectancies that are based on illusions instead of reality 2. Inappropriate goals 3. Poor strategies to reach the desired goals.

Answer 343

* Strategically useful (efficient shortcut for learning about or environment)

Answer 344

* imitation> social glue improving relationships and evaluation of interactions * can lead to prosocial behaviour

Answer 345

Exploring the question of whether imitation is learned behaviour or inherited

Answer 346

* Because the reversed option is impractical * if we see some influences in terms of the principles of learning theory in this aspect of imitation, we can conclude that they play a role in learning to imitate

Answer 347

learning about other people or the inanimate world through the observation of, or interaction with, another individual or its products

Answer 348

learning about other agents or the inanimate world that is not influenced by observation of, or interaction with, another individual or its products

Answer 349

* neither social learning nor asocial learning includes cases in which learning is mediated by language or other forms of symbolic communication. --> no teaching, signalling and communication

Answer 350

Considering cognitive processes distinguishing asocial and social learning to emerge, the input mechanisms are biased towards channels through which we administer social information

Answer 351

They focus on the resulting processes of neurocognitive mechanisms, i.e. the behaviour exhibited, instead of explaining said processes

Answer 352

Variations in social and asocial learning can be accounted for with the hypotheses that the same mechanisms (intra) or distinct mechanisms evolving together (inter)

Answer 353

For example, as a visitor in your house, I might see you using your foot to close a particular cabinet door and then begin to use my foot to close that door. This would be R-S observational learning or goal-directed imitation if what I had learned from observing your behaviour was a relationship between a response (foot movement) and its outcome (door closing). It would be S-R observational learning, or blind imitation if what I had learned was a relationship between a stimulus (a distinctive feature of the door) and a response (foot movement)

Answer 354

* human participants are required to perform body movements in response to arbitrary stimuli, but the arbitrary stimuli are accompanied by photographic images of the body movements in the response set * Reaction time is an indicator of whether they’re imitating

Answer 355

People unconsciously mimic body language eg → blind S-R imitation

Answer 356

1. Simple action replicated without intention 2. Familiar action

Answer 357

psychological input mechanisms supply the cognitive system with information that is encoded by learning mechanisms for long-term storage.

Answer 358

* Digestive: sustain energy and growth, * Learning: support durable changes in behaviour.

Answer 359

Organisms being more attentive to social stimuli as a consequence of their prior experience with these stimuli

Answer 360

evidence that highly social animals are superior to less social animals in a social learning task but not in a comparable asocial learning task

Answer 361

Social channels or any channels that through evolution, have become specialised to receive information from others (input mechanisms)

Answer 362

Cognition, emotion, biology → significantly different from traditional learning theory and behaviourism

Answer 363

Social modelling and observational learning

Answer 364

even if the learning (long-term encoding) was done by identical mechanisms, observer birds that were better able to see what the demonstrators were doing— by virtue of perceptual, attentional, or motivational biases—would show superior performance in the social, but not in the asocial, learning tasks ## Footnote social and asocial learning tasks: birds were given an equal opportunity to learn how to remove the covers by trial and error— by manipulating the covers themselves. In the social tasks the birds had, in addition, an opportunity to obtain information about the covers and the food beneath by observing conspecifics removing the covers and consuming the food

Answer 365

* personal: the belief that you can change things to make them better for yourself or others * proxy: enlisting others to change one’s life but

Answer 366

in one’s passivity leading to collective agency (group enforces change)

Answer 367

Innately human ability to be aware of the consequences of our actions

Answer 368

1. Exposure 2. Performing 3. Improving 4. Vicarious experiences --> if they can, so can I 5. Participant modelling

Answer 369

Few people are confident about every aspect of their lives in terms of performance

Answer 370

Not necessary: noticing attention-grabbing adverts → purchasing the product later (self-reinforced behaviour: evaluating own behaviour)

Answer 371

The motivation to learn is controlled by forethought and traditional learning cues → readiness to learn

Answer 372

For goal achievement: 1. internal self-regulatory processes 2. self-criticism 3. self-praise 4. valuation of own personal standards 5. re-evaluation of own personal standards if necessary 6. self-persuasion, evaluation of attainment 7. acceptance of challenges

Answer 373

Ability in inductive and deductive reasoning

Answer 374

your belief that if you perform some behaviour, it will get you a desired positive outcome (varies according to context) Reinforces behaviour and particular outcomes

Answer 375

identifying basic structures of a concept and the minimum amount of traits required to account for global explanations

Answer 376

ability to perceive details, anomalies and similarities in visual stimuli

Answer 377

in-depth understanding of the individual

Answer 378

emphasise the uniqueness of individuals

Answer 379

ability for rote memory

Answer 380

1. Linguistic 2. Logical-mathematical 3. Spatial 4. Musical 5. Bodily-Kinesthetic 6. Interpersonal 7. Intrapersonal 8. Naturalist + 9. Existentialist (later added)

Answer 381

emphasises the similarities between groups of individuals because individuals are only unique in their combination of traits

Answer 382

ability to transform spatial figures mentally

Answer 383

ability to carry out mathematical operations

Answer 384

ability in reading, comprehension and analogies

Answer 385

ability to generate and use large numbers of words

Answer 386

homeostatic counterreaction that leads to the diminished effect of heroin

Answer 387

all cues present at the time of heroin consumption

Answer 388

nothing. neither ur nor cr

Answer 389

the homeostatic counterreaction reducing the effect of the physiological changes brought on by heroin

Answer 390

* variety of subtests helps gain a better understanding of intelligence * standardised administration → adjusting length and level of difficulty; comfortable conditions * Norm referencing → comparability of similar demographic (big sample)

Answer 391

* Selection (academic placement, predictive measure for job opportunities) * Diagnosis (psychometric test evaluating learning disabilities) * Evaluation (schools)

Answer 392

1. Constructed in a way that scales correlate with each other and subcategories that are outliers are excluded 2. Results fluctuate across time (15 points: Benson 2003) 3. Challenged by positive correlation Jones & Bayley 1941 stable IQ in childhood 4. Deary et al. 77-year follow-up study r=.73 5. Fundamental issues with face, concurrent and predictive validity 6. Unclear means to measure all learning disabilities: can’t pinpoint

PL1025: Learning, Personality & Intelligence Flashcards

Your Deck Mentor for the Learning, Personality and Intelligence deck is Victoria. You can email victoria.sauter@forward-college.eu with any questions/suggestions about the flashcards in this deck.