PL1025: Learning, Personality & Intelligence Flashcards
Your Deck Mentor for the Learning, Personality and Intelligence deck is Victoria. You can email victoria.sauter@forward-college.eu with any questions/suggestions about the flashcards in this deck.
What is personality according to Gordon Allport (1961)?
internal dynamic organisation of psychophysical systems that produce behavioural, emotional and cognitive patterns
What is the psychoanalytic approach to personality
psychoanalytic approach to personality was developed by Sigmund Freud. It is a clinically derived theory based on case studies of patients and Freud’s introspection about his own behaviour. The theory postulates that most of our behaviour is driven by unconscious motives
Which aspect of Stenberg intelligence matches thinking quickly?
Fluid Thought
Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches demonstrating a good vocabulary?
verbal ability
Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to converse on almost any topic?
verbal ability
Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to recognise similarities and differences?
intellectual balance and integration
Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to understand and interpret his or her environment ?
contextual intelligence
Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to make connections and distinctions between ideas and things?
intellectual balance and integration
Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to have a thorough grasp of mathematics?
goal orientation and attainment
Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to have a thorough grasp of correct and incorrect answers?
practical problem solving ability
Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to see attainable goals and accomplish them?
→ practical problem-solving ability
What is the difference between Spearman’s and Thurstone’s G
Thurstone argued ‘g’ is a result of seven primary mental abilities. Spearman, on the other hand, argued that ‘g’ resulted in all aspects of intelligence.
Summarise the history of intelligence testing
Sir Francis –> Simon-Binet and the French Government –> Stanford-Binet (Terman) –> G (Spearman) Raven’s -> WSIC, WAIS–> Thurstone and Cattell’s interpretations of G –> Gardner’s 9 Intelligences –> Stenberg’s Laytheories
Which tests and intelligence concepts are culture-bound, and which ones are more general?
- Culture bound: WSIC, WAIS
- General: Raven
What is IQ deviation
(test score/ expected age score)*100 how much you deviated from the average IQ of 100
What do Western cultures emphasise about Intelligence according to Stenberg (1981)?
speed of mental processing and the ability to gather, assimilate and sort information
What do studies comparing cultural ideals of intelligence show?
Western views of intelligence highlight the individual’s cognitive skills and memory while eastern societies extend these qualities onto an individual’s social environment, understanding of how to navigate culture
How would an application of Simon-Binet’s concept of intelligence look
Recommended reading ages for books because they present a comparison of what abilities children of a specific age group should have
Why was the Standford-Binet scale better than the Binet-Simon scale?
Because its bigger sample size made for more representative results (N=50 < N>1000)
What is Spearman’s model of intelligence referred to?
Two-factor model
What’s the key takeaway about categorisation
may not be a single process, and different kinds of categorization may lend themselves to different theoretical treatments.
SEMANTIC KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge about objects and their properties, and of relationships between and among them, including knowledge of word meanings. General encyclopaedic knowledge is sometimes also included.
TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY
A structured set of concepts linked together with class-inclusion relationships.
How does taxonomic hierarchies relate to semantic dementia and semantic development
Children and dementia patients work in opposite directions one expanding on the superordinate concepts and the other losing the specific concepts
Category
A set of objects in the world that can be grouped together
Categorisation:
Process of placing concepts into groups called categories, based on their characteristic features
Concept
A mental representation of a category, used for a variety of cognitive functions including memory, reasoning, and using language. A classical view is that concepts provide definitions of their corresponding category.
What is similarity?
The degree to which features/elements of an object or stimulus ‘match’ one another (Braisby & Gellatly, 2012).
What is typicality?
The degree to which an object or stimulus is the best or most representative example of a category or concept
INTERNAL REPRESENTATION
In a PDP network , a pattern of activity that arises across a layerof hidden units. When a network is presented with a given input, the pattern of activity arising across its hidden layer is the internal representation of that input.
*See The Connectionist approach slides in Topic 7
HIDDEN UNITS
Hidden and theoretical gateways between input and output that represent differentiated partterns of activation
Parallel Distributing Processing (PDP) framework
the brain does not function in a series of activities but rather performs a range of activities at the same time, parallel to each other.
propagation of activation
Semantic information is not stored as such but instead is reconstructed in response to probes in a process called pattern completion.
Which approach is Jung’s model of personality rooted in?
psychodynamic
Which dimensions are part of Jung’s model of personality?
- extra/introversion
- sensing/ thinking
- feeling/ intuition
Basis for the Myers-Briggs indicator
What is the context of Jung’s model of personality rooted in?
Aim to combine Freud and Adler’s theories because people both incorporated extraverted and introverted components
Which approach is the five-factor model rooted in?
trait approach and factor analytic approach
What dimensions of personality are a part of the five-factor model?
- openness
- conscientiousness
- extraversion
- agreeableness
- neuroticism
OCEAN
What role did the lexical approach play in OCEAN?
Allport assumed that important personality descriptors were linguistically encoded and indicated by frequent use
To which effect was factor analysis used in the development of the five-factor model?
Cattell used a factor analysis to group and reduce the list of personality traits based on participants’ ratings on the degree to which words applied to them. This led to 16 personality factors
Which role do Costa and McCrae take on in the five-factor model?
they had participants complete two questionnaires and used the results to reduce the 16 factors to 5 factors/traits
What is Eysenck and Gray’s model rooted in?
trait approach, biological approach
How do Eysenck and Gray describe extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism?
- sensation-seeking, sociable and assertive
- tense, anxious, moody, irrational
- impulsive, aggressive, antisocial, creative
What is highlighted in Eysenck’s model of personality?
the importance of genes, biological determinants of personality, neural causes of extraversion, neuroticism
What does ARAS signify?
Ascending Reticular Activating System
Which statement accurately describes the relationship between the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) and extraversion?
a) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit manifests in extraversion.
b) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit extraversion.
c) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit introversion.
d) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit introversion.
b
Which statement accurately describes the relationship between the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) and neuroticism?
a) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit manifests in neurotic behaviour.
b) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit calmness.
c) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit neurotic behaviour.
d) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit neurotic behaviour.
c
How does Eysenck explain extraversion and introversion?
Extraverted: underaroused reticulo-cortical circuit leads to sensation seeking
Introverted: overaroused reticulo-cortical circuit leads to avoidance of stimulating situations
How does Eysenck explain extraversion and neuroticism?
- Overarousal of reticulo-limbic circuit: low threshold for emotional stability and easy emotional arousal neuroticism
- Underarousal of reticulo-limbic circuit: emotional stability
How is Gray’s BAS/BIS theory a modifaction of Eysenck’s ARAS?
- personality is the result of variations in the behavioural approach system (BAS), behavioural inhibition system (BIS) and fight-flight system
What does overactivity in the BAS lead to and why?
motivates to seek rewards –> impulsivity
What does an overactive BIS lead to and why?
anxiety because it motivates to avoid and be sensitive to punishment
What is the main criticsim of Jung’s model of personality?
- incomplete account of how personality develops
- unclear, not parsimonious explanation
- low reliability and difficult to test but there are multiple tests
- large heuristic value
What is the main criticsim of Eysenck and Gray’s model of personality?
- validity of biological claims: weak relationship between arousal measured by EEG and neuroticsm (Mathhews & Gilliand, 1999)
- psychoticism precise enough to be measurable?
- are three factors comprehensive enough to describe personality?
What is the main criticsim of the five-factor model of personality?
- atheoretical and data driven but syill aims to explain
- validity of lexical approach
- representativeness of the traits
- personality trait measures statistically account for 10% of variance in observed behaviour so how comprehensive is the theory really (Mischel, 1968)
How can theory be evaluated using the acronym DEEPCHAT
- Description: simplify, clarify or identify important issues
- Explanation: help understand why behaviour
- Empirical Validity: generating predictions that can be empirically tested
- Parsimony: few use of terms of the explanatory concepts included
- Comprehensiveness: breadth of a theory (e.g. explaining normal & abnormal behaviour
- Heuristic Value: stimulate new research?
- Applied Value: practical usefulness in a wider context -> beneficial changes
- Testable Concepts: ability to operationalise concepts of a theory -> reliably measurable?
Trait
fundamental units of personality representing dispositional responses conditional probability of a category of behaviours in a category of context (Mischel, 1999)
Lexical Approach
produce descriptive models of personality traits (no explanation) based on lexical hypothesis: differences in personality are important for social interaction so they have been assigned lables that are used in varying frequency and abundace which denotes the cultural relevancy
Eysenck Psychopathy vs. Neuroticism
difference in serverity: antisocial behaviour + high self-esteem vs. emotional unstability
Who facilitated the change from categorical types into trait dimensions?
Wilhelm Wundt (1874) when he revisted the four temperaments and reorganised them into dimensions (unchangable/changable, emotional/unemotional)
The strength and problem of biological theories of personality
usage of important psychological mechanisms vs. lack of consistent evidence (more assumed importance and oversimplification of ARAS, BAS/BIS)
psychodynamic approach
theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly unconscious between the different structures of the personality Jungian (Follower of Freud; applies to psychoanalysis too)
biological approach
assumes that biological factors influence our behavior and mental well-being in a cause-and-effect include genes, influence one is predisposed to some conditions, CNS rely on empirical findings (experiments, falsibility) meaning they are provable opposed to psychodynamic approaches
factor analytic approach?
used to regroup variables into a limited set of clusters, known as factors.
In reference to personality, what is a psychological construct?
A mental concept that influences behaviour via the mind-body interaction.
In considering the five-factor model of personality, Jung’s model of personality, and Eysenck & Gray’s model of personality, which one can be considered the LEAST parsimonious?
Jung’s model of personality describes such a wide range of structures within personality, many with overlapping functions and it is unclear how they relate
What assumption is the nomothetic approach based upon?
The nomothetic approach is based upon the assumption that there is a finite set of variables in existence that can be used to describe human personality.
Unobservable aspects of personality include such things as:
Thoughts, memories and dreams
Which of the following statements best defines factor analysis?
It is a multivariate data reduction statistical technique
Which statement is true?
a. Personality theorists (e.g. Jung, Freud) hold the assumption than individuals are inherently individualist
b. Personality theories transcend cultural contexts
c. Personality theory in psychology places the concept of The Self at the core of its theorising
d. Classic personality theorists were Western white men, who likely held the prevailing societal attitudes, biases, and prejudices of their time
A., C., D.
According to Eysenck’s biological model of personality, how does performance/ an emotional state change depending on levels of arousal?
I like to dabble with with both a trait approach and biological approach….second clue is I invented the Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS) toexplain that variations in extraversion and neuroticism are due to balancing excitatory and inhibitory mechanisms .
Eysenck
I’m a fan of Factor analysis and some might say I’m the sweet-16 guy…The second clue is Allport left me a lot of traits to work with.
Cattell
I decided to modify Eysenck’s work and like the biological approach….second clue is I proposed that personality was based on the interaction between 3different systems in the brain.
Gray
Maybe Galton was right, and the the secret to personality lies in the dictionary, count the synonyms that describe a personality trait!…..The second clue is,I put a lot of effort into analysing 18000 words related to personality….
Allport
I am a fan of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler’s work…..second clue is that a widely used personality inventory was developed by two women inspired bymy work.
Jung
Who’s part of the The Five Factor model evolution team?
Allport,Cattell, Costa & McCrae
What is the context of the Implicit Theories?
innate interest and relevance to daily life
Who’s the theorist behind the implicit theory of intelligence?
R.J. Stenberg (2001)
Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the Binet-Simon Scale?
French Ministry of Public Instruction commissioned him to provide techniques to predict children’s success and which ones require special education (Simon & Binet, 1905)
Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the Stanford-Binet Scale?
Binet-Simon testing used on Californian children → age norms didn’t fit (Terman, 1916)
Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the theory of General Intelligence
wanting to set out to estimate the intelligence of children in his area (Spearman, 1904/1927)
Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the Multifactor Theory ?
“Spearman didn’t prove his idea of g” (Thurstone)
Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the theory of Fluid and Crystallised Intelligence ?
“G has two separate components” (R.B. Cattell)
Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the theory of Multiple Intelligences
educational psychologist → traditional intelligence testing incomprehensive and not applicable in the educational setting (Gardner, 1983/ 1996)
IQ as defined by W. Stern?
(mental age/ biological age)*100
G’?
underlying intelligence required for all types = abstract ability to recognise relationships between objects, events, information and make inferences
S’?
type of intelligence for specific tasks (vocabulary, mathematical, spatial
Fluid vs. Crystallised Intelligence
reasoning and problem solving skills vs. factual knowledge/ stored information
Intelligence in Stenberg’s words
layperson’s ideas and conceptualisation of the defining qualities of intelligence
Intelligence in Simon and Binet’s terms?
alignment of mental age and developmental age leading to increased or decreased ability to perform daily tasks ranging in difficulty
Intelligence in Spearman’s terms?
intelligence is made up of specific abilities and general intelligenceg: (mental energy) ability to see relationships and draw inferences → influences ‘s’
Intelligence in Thurstone’s words?
‘G’ results from seven mental abilities
Intelligence after Cattell?
‘G’ is made up of an dynamic interaction of crystallised and fluid intelligence whereby represents our factual knowledge and the other problem solving/ critical thinking skills
Intelligence in Gardner’s eyes?
intelligence is the sum of processes that can take place different intelligences reside in different parts of the brain (?)
Sternberg et al. 1981?
asking one group of people to list behaviours that were characteristic of intelligence, academic intelligence, everyday intelligence or unintelligence, asking another group of people to rate how well each of those behaviours reflected intelligence.
What three dimensions of intelligence were found using the findings from this investigation? Sternberg et al. 1981
Verbal ability, Practical Problem-Solving, Social Competence
One of the lasting contributions of Binet and Simon’s test is that children’s performance on the test is compared to
How well the child should do at that age The performance of children of the same age
Two widely used IQ Tests
Wechsler Tests (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale & Wechsler Scale for Children 1955) Raven’s progressive matrices (1938)
Heritability
estimate of the average proportion of variance for any behaviour, thought to be accounted for by genetic factors across the population how far variability in phenotypic variance is attributable to genotypic variance.
Twin Studies
possibility of comparing different types of genetic makeup to compare genetic influence because different types of twins share different proportions of genes dizygotic 50% monozygotic 100%
Critique of Twin Studies
on their own not insightful potentially because all children share an estimated average of 50 per cent of their genes withtheir parents and their siblings using observation, interview or questionnaire measuresalso presents a problem because similarities betweenpersonalities might be because of environmental influence(e.g. an extraverted son might be like his extraverted father
Behavioural Genetics
looks at the relationships between genes, environment and behaviour estimating the extent of genetic heritability of behaviour across a population; stating the genetic heritability of that behaviour in terms of shared variance
Additive Assumption
two dimensions that determine heritability: the genetic part and (2) the environment (outdated for genetic heritability) E+G= 100
What kicked off the debate and inquiry into the heritability of intelligence?
Sir Francis Galton’s investigation into whether intelligence runs in families (1869 Hereditary Genius). His findings promted him to consider the influence of one’s environment (asked fellow members of the Royal Society about the socioeconomic status of their parents) and suggested that intelligence is governed by the dichotomy of nature vs. nature , which he concluded would be best explored by twin and adoption studies (1875).
Genetic Heritability
Assessment of how any extent of phenotypical manifestations in a child are caused by their genetic inheritance
Examples for Phenotypes?
physical appearance, behaviour, intelligence, personality, observable/measurable properties
H^2 ?
Estimated average of genetic heritability across a population taken from samples of studies^2* (rmz-rdz)
What are the three main methods of assessing genetic heritability?
Family Studies, Twin Studies, Adoption Studies Plomin 2004
The problem with Family Studies? (2)
Robert Plomin 2004 on their own they tell us very little about g.i. because children are assumed to share an estimated average of 50% with their siblings and parents similarities found using observation, interview or questionnaire mesures might be because of the environmental influence of the parent -> solution twin and adoption studies
Family Studies
Researchers examine associations between parental and child behaviour within a family
Adoption Studies
possibility of comparing different types of genetic makeup to compare genetic and environmental influence at the same time because different types of twins share different proportions of genes if two twins show similar behaviours despite being raised in different environments = evidence genetic heritability all these studies are considered when examining genetic inheritance
What does and doesn’t genetic inheritance refer to?
Heritability estimates doesn’t refer to specific individuals but certain populations of people so MZ, DZ, Family members, parents and children
What does a heritability estimate of 50% mean?
it doesn’t mean we inherited this amount from genes but that across a certain population the genetic heritability of a certain trait is estimated at an average of 50%
Concordance Rate
probability that a percentage of blood relatives exhibited in a particular trait will/does overlap with other scores in a sample => average of all rates is the heritability estimate
Explain h =”font-size:x-small;”>2
In twin studies correlations between MZ are usually twice as high so estimates are derived by doubling the difference in correlations between MZ and DZ
Who were behavioural geneticist who commented on the estimation of heritability of personality based on American, Australian and European samples at the end of of the 20th centurary? How high was their estimate?
Plomin (1996) & Riemann and De Raad (1998) estimated a moderate heritability of personality from genetic factors, accounting for between 20 and 50 per cent of phenotypic variance.
| P.199
What is the key takeaways from the adoption studies?
correlations for MZ reared apart are greater than for DZ reared together and apart suggests a genetic influence on personality for both extraversion and neuroticism
In general, the studies summarised here suggest substantial heritability for genetic influence on personality. Genetic factors can sometimes explain as much X per cent of the variance within the main personality dimensions.
40-50%
|Pedersen et al. (1988) p.200
Who brought about the change from additive assumption to heritability estimates?
Authors such as US psychologists E. E. Maccoby (2000) and Plomin (2004), who researched and later critically suggested that the additive principle of determining heritability of personality (or any phenotype) is not applicable any more or even the concept of genetic inheritability all together.
What are the two main issues with additive assumption?
- estimating the environment (E) is usually done without utilising any direct measures of environmental factors. Ex.: researchers often compute genetic heritability, and then subtract that from 100 per cent.
- when genetic heritability is large, it assumes that all environmental factors associated with that behaviour must be small. It is better to see human person- ality as a joint result of an interaction between the individ- ual’s genes and their environmental factors. Consequently, personality should not be seen as the result of ‘Genetics + Environment’ but rather ‘Genetics × Environment’. For example, it is better to view the relative influences of genes and environment on personality as the result of a long-term interaction, with environmental factors triggering certain genetic behaviours and the effects of the environment differing between individuals because of their genetic makeup.
What are the six main considerations in behavioural genetics in terms of personality?
- Conceptions of heritability and the environment
- Different types of genetic variance
- Shared versus non-shared environmental influences
- The representativeness of twin and adoption studies
- Assortative mating
- The changing world of genetics
What are the four main considerations in behavioural genetics as far as intelligence is concerned?
- Conceptions of Heritability
- Different types or genetic variance
- The representativeness of twin and adoption studies
- Assortative Mating
Additive genetic variation
genetic variation in behaviour that is the total of the individual’s genes inherited from their parents
non-additive genetic variances
dominant genetic variance and epistatic genetic variance or interactive genetic variance
Epigenetics
process describing (epi)gene expression resulting from environmental factors that either suppress or activate our dispositions
Contingency
the fact that the CS providesinformation about the US’s arrival
The Rescorla-Wagner equation is:
ΔV = αβ(λ – ΣV)
The Rescorla-Wagner equation is used to predict the
The Rescorla-Wagner model describes the rate of change in associative strength (between stimulusand outcome or response and outcome or stimulus and stimulus) through conditioning.This model focuses on error driven learning.
Assumptions of Rescorla-Wagner error prediction model with regard tothe unconditioned stimulus (US)
The effectiveness of US depends on how different it is from what isexpected The amount of learning on a given trial is a function of the surprisevalue of the US (more surprise then more conditioning)
What does ΔV mean?
change in associative strength (i.e., the strength of the association between the CS and the US)
What does the α value represent
α is the salience of the CS, i.e., how much the CS grabs your attention. E.g., the salience of a brightflashing red light should be higher than the salience of a plain red square. With a strong CS, α shouldapproach 1, but with a weaker stimulus α should tend towards 0.
What does β mean?
β is the salience or motivational value of the US, the outcome, e.g., the motivational value of chocolateas a US might be higher than the motivational value of lettuce as a US. The more we desire an outcome,the more we will learn about it.
What does the λ mean?
λ is the outcome (the US). This is usually only 1 or 0 – 1 when the outcome or US is present, and 0 whenthe outcome or US is absent.
What does ΣV mean?
ΣV is the sum of all the associative strengths of all the stimuli at the beginning of that trial.
What is central to the Rescorla-Wagner prediction
role of surprise
The strength of a Pavlovian conditioned response (CR) depends upon
the strengthof the connection between internal representations of the CS and the US… theassociative strength of the CS.
Cue Competition: the principle of summation
This means that if two cues are trainedin compound, they will compete for associative strength with the pairedoutcome <img></img>
Conditioned Inhibition
A conditioned inhibitor is a stimulus that predicts the absence of an outcome.
How do you learn that a stimulus predicts the absence of an outcome?
This cannot be established simply by pairing a stimulus with no outcome, as that would just result in nolearning.
Extinction Treatment
in a conditioned inhibition paradigm, remove the reward when the stimulus is presented after it’s trained
What are the three strengths of the RW model?
- the equation allows qualitative predictions
- heuristic value for other associative learning theories
- helped with understanding numerous psychological processes
| The model provides a good account of many of the facts of compound conditioning, BUT not all the effects associated with blocking and overshadowing are consistent with it. What are the strengths
What are the limitations of the RW model?
- no adequate account for the role of surprise when blocking is considered
- no adequate account of extinction
- inappropriate account for discrimination
- inhibition is conceptualised as negative associative strength
What’s Donald Hebb’s (1949) learning theory
When individual cells are activated at the same time, they establish connecting synapses or strengthen existing onesand thus become a functional unit. These are the structuralbases of memory.
Synapse
specialised junction through which neural signals are transmitted from one neuron (the presynaptic neuron) to another (the postsynaptic neuron)
Hebbian synapse
increase its effectiveness as a result of simultaneous activity in the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons. Such synapses are essential for many kinds of associative learning.
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
main form of synaptic plasticity reflecting theactivity of synaptic information storage processes, and has been identified as the likelycellular correlate of learning and memory
Explain the principle of LTP
One or more axons connected to a dendrite act as source for stimuli -> sudden and strong stimulation leaves some synapses depolarised/potentiated (more responsive to more stimuli) for varying amount of time
What is associativity in long-term potentiation?
The response to axon 2 is initially weak. Briefly pairing it withrapid stimulation in axon 1 strongly depolarizes the dendrite.Afterward, the response to axon 2 (as well as axon 1) is enhanced.
How does the biological basis relate to Pavlovian Conditioning?
This relates to learning, as previous experience has led to a long-term change inthe behaviour of the synapse, and it can be argued that this is related to surprise asthis is a result of a ‘burst of intense stimulation’ – a difference in what was expected(i.e. a prediction error).
What did Schultz 2007 find on the role of dopamine in learning theory?
dopaminergic neurons exhibitburst activity, also known as ‘phasic activation,’following primary food and liquid rewards and conditioned visual, auditory, and somatosensory reward-predicting stimuli
Does dopamine provides a biological signal for an error prediction, therefore providing a biologicalindication for surprise?
no dopamine activity to the CS, because lacking association with the reward outcome or US -> dopaminergic neurons shift towards CS after successive trials -> after dopamine reaction only to CS not to outcome/reward or US
Absence of a reward following a blocked stimulus does not induce a neuronal response
When the light, the blocked predictor, was presented with no reward in the test stage, shown asblocking Group A in the table, they saw no dopamine activity Had an association been learnt between the noise and the light, we would expect to see increased dopamineactivity to the presentation of the light, and a depression of dopamine activity when no reward is presented . ➜ That this did not occur supports the findings of the blocking paradigm, as the prior learning about the noise atstage one ‘blocked’ the learning about the light at stage two, and this provides support for the role of dopamine insignalling prediction error.
Neuronal activation following the delivery of a reward after a blocked stimulus
For blocking Group B, when a reward was presented after the light, there was dopamine activity to thereward. Had an association been learnt between the light and the reward, then we would have expected to see increased dopamine activity to the light, not the reward . ➜ That this did not occur supports the findings of the blocking paradigm, as the prior learning about the noise atstage one ‘blocked’ the learning about the light at stage two, and this provides support for the role of dopamine insignalling prediction error.
What are the arguments against Schultz’s (2007) design supporting the claim that dopamine activity is signalling error prediction?
- no exact replication with punishment or aversive outcome
- Would dopamine still fire in the original experiment
What are the arguments in favour of Schultz’s (2007) design supporting the claim that dopamine activity is signalling error prediction?
- the observed pattern does support the role of dopamine signalling prediction error
- prediction error regards learning in general and is not limited to learning about rewarding outcomes
What key does Siegel 2016 outline in the relation between Pavlovian Conditioning, tolerance and addiction
Conditioned Compensatory Responses
Siegel (2016) The Heroin Overdose Mystery two key points with Classical Conditioning
UR is NOT the effect of the drug, it is the bodily process that addresses the effect of the drug – the body’s RESPONSE CS all stimuli or contextual cues associated with the drug => illicits body’s indirect response
What is the alpha response in the Heroin overdose mystery
a drug is the directresponse that the drug causes, i.e. a rush, depression of respiration.
What’s the beta response in the Heroin overdose mystery
homeostatic counter-response that acts to diminish the direct effects of the drug. These homeostatic counter-responses are the responses that enter into conditioning.
What is Tolerance and how is it accomplished
cues remainconstant prior to the drug arriving intothe body, the conditioned compensatoryresponse (beta response) bothdiminishes the body’s level of reactivity tothe drug – the drug is expected andprocessed more efficiently, thus its effectsare attenuated (less pleasure)
How do you think cues associated with a drug could cause craving, as part of addiction?
- Cues = elicit a conditioned compensatory response.
- For example, cues associated with heroin will elicit the conditioned compensatory responses of “despair,” increased pain sensitivity and increased frequency of breathing (which can make individuals feel anxious).
- The conditioned compensatory responses are all highly aversive.
- In the presence of cues associated with a drug, an individual will experience the negative/aversive-conditioned compensatory responses, and may then be motivated to take the drug simply to alleviate them
Critique of learning theory:
Fails to address the complexity of human behaviour, and too heavily based on animal studies.
What is Behavioural Psychology?
Behaviour is learned• Individual difference in behaviour is the result of differentlearning experiences that people have had and thesituations in which they find themselves
Research definition of learning:
“A long lasting change in behaviour that results fromexperience”
Habituation is the simplest form of learning:
it is –learning NOT to respond to an unimportant event
Explain Pavlovian Conditioning
What does classical conditioning provide us with
a way to learn about cause-effect relations between environmental events
What are two important factors in classical conditioning
Sequence and Timing
Extinction
Present bell with no food following* ➜ reversal of conditioning process* ➜ extinction (association isundone)
Acquisition of new knowledge depends on
Intensity of US -> rapidness of learning Timing -> Optimal: Presentation of the CS occurs shortly before the US
Associative strength
The strength of the connection between internal representationsof the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus which determines the strength ofthe conditioned response (the Rescorla-Wagner model outlines this).