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Psychology - Year 1 Weekly Flashcards > PL1025: Learning, Personality and Intelligence > Flashcards

PL1025: Learning, Personality and Intelligence Flashcards

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1
Q

What is personality, according to Gordon Allport (1961)?

A

internal dynamic organisation of psychophysical systems that produce behavioural, emotional and cognitive patterns

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2
Q

What is the psychoanalytic approach to personality

A

psychoanalytic approach to personality was developed by Sigmund Freud. It is a clinically derived theory based on case studies of patients and Freud’s introspection about his own behaviour. The theory postulates that most of our behaviour is driven by unconscious motives

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2
Q

Which approach is Jung’s model of personality rooted in?

A

psychodynamic

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3
Q

Which dimensions are part of Jung’s model of personality?

A
  • extra/introversion
  • sensing/ thinking
  • feeling/ intuition

Basis for the Myers-Briggs indicator

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4
Q

What is the context of Jung’s model of personality rooted in?

A

Aim to combine Freud and Adler’s theories because people both incorporated extraverted and introverted components

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5
Q

Which approach is the five-factor model rooted in?

A

trait approach and factor analytic approach

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6
Q

What dimensions of personality are a part of the five-factor model?

A
  • openness
  • conscientiousness
  • extraversion
  • agreeableness
  • neuroticism

OCEAN

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7
Q

What role did the lexical approach play in OCEAN?

A

Allport assumed that important personality descriptors were linguistically encoded and indicated by frequent use

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8
Q

To which effect was factor analysis used in the development of the five-factor model?

A

Cattell used a factor analysis to group and reduce the list of personality traits based on participants’ ratings on the degree to which words applied to them. This led to 16 personality factors

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9
Q

Which role do Costa and McCrae take on in the five-factor model?

A

they had participants complete two questionnaires and used the results to reduce the 16 factors to 5 factors/traits

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10
Q

What is Eysenck and Gray’s model rooted in?

A

trait approach, biological approach

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11
Q

How do Eysenck and Gray describe extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism?

A
  • sensation-seeking, sociable and assertive
  • tense, anxious, moody, irrational
  • impulsive, aggressive, antisocial, creative
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12
Q

What is highlighted in Eysenck’s model of personality?

A

the importance of genes, biological determinants of personality, neural causes of extraversion, neuroticism

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13
Q

How does Eysenck explain extraversion and introversion?

A

Extraverted: underaroused reticulo-cortical circuit leads to sensation seeking
Introverted: overaroused reticulo-cortical circuit leads to avoidance of stimulating situations

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14
Q

How is Gray’s BAS/BIS theory a modifaction of Eysenck’s ARAS?

A
  • personality is the result of variations in the behavioural approach system (BAS), behavioural inhibition system (BIS) and fight-flight system
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15
Q

What is the main criticsim of Jung’s model of personality?

A
  • incomplete account of how personality develops
  • unclear, not parsimonious explanation
  • low reliability and difficult to test but there are multiple tests
  • large heuristic value
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16
Q

What is the main criticsim of Eysenck and Gray’s model of personality?

A
  • validity of biological claims: weak relationship between arousal measured by EEG and neuroticsm (Mathhews & Gilliand, 1999)
  • psychoticism precise enough to be measurable?
  • are three factors comprehensive enough to describe personality?
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17
Q

What is the main criticsim of the five-factor model of personality?

A
  • atheoretical and data driven but syill aims to explain
  • validity of lexical approach
  • representativeness of the traits
  • personality trait measures statistically account for 10% of variance in observed behaviour so how comprehensive is the theory really (Mischel, 1968)
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18
Q

How can theory be evaluated using the acronym DEEPCHAT

A
  • Description: simplify, clarify or identify important issues
  • Explanation: help understand why behaviour
  • Empirical Validity: generating predictions that can be empirically tested
  • Parsimony: few use of terms of the explanatory concepts included
  • Comprehensiveness: breadth of a theory (e.g. explaining normal & abnormal behaviour
  • Heuristic Value: stimulate new research?
  • Applied Value: practical usefulness in a wider context -> beneficial changes
  • Testable Concepts: ability to operationalise concepts of a theory -> reliably measurable?
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19
Q

Trait

A

fundamental units of personality representing dispositional responses conditional probability of a category of behaviours in a category of context (Mischel, 1999)

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20
Q

Lexical Approach

A

produce descriptive models of personality traits (no explanation) based on lexical hypothesis: differences in personality are important for social interaction so they have been assigned lables that are used in varying frequency and abundace which denotes the cultural relevancy

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21
Q

Eysenck Psychopathy vs. Neuroticism

A

difference in serverity: antisocial behaviour + high self-esteem vs. emotional unstability

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22
Q

Who facilitated the change from categorical types into trait dimensions?

A

Wilhelm Wundt (1874) when he revisted the four temperaments and reorganised them into dimensions (unchangable/changable, emotional/unemotional)

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23
Q

The strength and problem of biological theories of personality

A

usage of important psychological mechanisms vs. lack of consistent evidence (more assumed importance and oversimplification of ARAS, BAS/BIS)

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24
Q

psychodynamic approach

A

theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly unconscious between the different structures of the personality Jungian (Follower of Freud; applies to psychoanalysis too)

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25
Q

biological approach

A

assumes that biological factors influence our behavior and mental well-being in a cause-and-effect include genes, influence one is predisposed to some conditions, CNS rely on empirical findings (experiments, falsibility) meaning they are provable opposed to psychodynamic approaches

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26
Q

factor analytic approach?

A

used to regroup variables into a limited set of clusters, known as factors.

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27
Q

In reference to personality, what is a psychological construct?

A

A mental concept that influences behaviour via the mind-body interaction.

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28
Q

In considering the five-factor model of personality, Jung’s model of personality, and Eysenck & Gray’s model of personality, which one can be considered the LEAST parsimonious?

A

Jung’s model of personality describes such a wide range of structures within personality, many with overlapping functions and it is unclear how they relate

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29
Q

What assumption is the nomothetic approach based upon?

A

The nomothetic approach is based upon the assumption that there is a finite set of variables in existence that can be used to describe human personality.

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30
Q

Unobservable aspects of personality include such things as:

A

Thoughts, memories and dreams

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31
Q

Which of the following statements best defines factor analysis?

A

It is a multivariate data reduction statistical technique

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32
Q

Which statement is true?
a. Personality theorists (e.g. Jung, Freud) hold the assumption than individuals are inherently individualist
b. Personality theories transcend cultural contexts
c. Personality theory in psychology places the concept of The Self at the core of its theorising
d. Classic personality theorists were Western white men, who likely held the prevailing societal attitudes, biases, and prejudices of their time

A

A., C., D.

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33
Q

According to Eysenck’s biological model of personality, how does performance/ an emotional state change depending on levels of arousal?

A
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34
Q

I like to dabble with with both a trait approach and biological approach….second clue is I invented the Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS) toexplain that variations in extraversion and neuroticism are due to balancing excitatory and inhibitory mechanisms .

A

Eysenck

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35
Q

I’m a fan of Factor analysis and some might say I’m the sweet-16 guy…The second clue is Allport left me a lot of traits to work with.

A

Cattell

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36
Q

I decided to modify Eysenck’s work and like the biological approach….second clue is I proposed that personality was based on the interaction between 3different systems in the brain.

A

Gray

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37
Q

Maybe Galton was right, and the the secret to personality lies in the dictionary, count the synonyms that describe a personality trait!…..The second clue is,I put a lot of effort into analysing 18000 words related to personality….

A

Allport

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38
Q

I am a fan of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler’s work…..second clue is that a widely used personality inventory was developed by two women inspired bymy work.

A

Jung

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39
Q

Who’s part of the The Five Factor model evolution team?

A

Allport,Cattell, Costa & McCrae

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40
Q

Which statement accurately describes the relationship between the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) and extraversion?

a) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit manifests in extraversion.
b) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit extraversion.
c) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit introversion.
d) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit introversion.

A

b

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41
Q

What does ARAS signify?

A

Ascending Reticular Activating System

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42
Q

Which statement accurately describes the relationship between the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) and neuroticism?

a) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit manifests in neurotic behaviour.
b) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit calmness.
c) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit neurotic behaviour.
d) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit neurotic behaviour.

A

c

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43
Q

How does Eysenck explain extraversion and neuroticism?

A
  • Overarousal of reticulo-limbic circuit: low threshold for emotional stability and easy emotional arousal neuroticism
  • Underarousal of reticulo-limbic circuit: emotional stability
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44
Q

What does overactivity in the BAS lead to and why?

A

motivates to seek rewards –> impulsivity

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45
Q

What does an overactive BIS lead to and why?

A

anxiety because it motivates to avoid and be sensitive to punishment

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46
Q

Which aspect of Stenberg intelligence matches thinking quickly?

A

Fluid Thought

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47
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches demonstrating a good vocabulary?

A

verbal ability

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48
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to converse on almost any topic?

A

verbal ability

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49
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to recognise similarities and differences?

A

intellectual balance and integration

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50
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to understand and interpret his or her environment ?

A

contextual intelligence

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51
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to make connections and distinctions between ideas and things?

A

intellectual balance and integration

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52
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to have a thorough grasp of mathematics?

A

goal orientation and attainment

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53
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to have a thorough grasp of correct and incorrect answers?

A

practical problem solving ability

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54
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to see attainable goals and accomplish them?

A

→ practical problem-solving ability

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55
Q

What is the difference between Spearman’s and Thurstone’s G

A

Thurstone argued ‘g’ is a result of seven primary mental abilities. Spearman, on the other hand, argued that ‘g’ resulted in all aspects of intelligence.

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56
Q

Summarise the history of intelligence testing

A

Sir Francis –> Simon-Binet and the French Government –> Stanford-Binet (Terman) –> G (Spearman) Raven’s -> WSIC, WAIS–> Thurstone and Cattell’s interpretations of G –> Gardner’s 9 Intelligences –> Stenberg’s Laytheories

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57
Q

Which tests and intelligence concepts are culture-bound, and which ones are more general?

A
  • Culture bound: WSIC, WAIS
  • General: Raven
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58
Q

What is IQ deviation

A

(test score/ expected age score)*100 how much you deviated from the average IQ of 100

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59
Q

What do Western cultures emphasise about Intelligence according to Stenberg (1981)?

A

speed of mental processing and the ability to gather, assimilate and sort information

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60
Q

What do studies comparing cultural ideals of intelligence show?

A

Western views of intelligence highlight the individual’s cognitive skills and memory while eastern societies extend these qualities onto an individual’s social environment, understanding of how to navigate culture

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61
Q

How would an application of Simon-Binet’s concept of intelligence look

A

Recommended reading ages for books because they present a comparison of what abilities children of a specific age group should have

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62
Q

Why was the Standford-Binet scale better than the Binet-Simon scale?

A

Because its bigger sample size made for more representative results (N=50 < N>1000)

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63
Q

What is Spearman’s model of intelligence referred to?

A

Two-factor model

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64
Q

What is the context of the Implicit Theories?

A

innate interest and relevance to daily life

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65
Q

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the Binet-Simon Scale?

A

French Ministry of Public Instruction commissioned him to provide techniques to predict children’s success and which ones require special education (Simon & Binet, 1905)

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66
Q

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the Stanford-Binet Scale?

A

Binet-Simon testing used on Californian children → age norms didn’t fit (Terman, 1916)

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67
Q

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the theory of General Intelligence

A

wanting to set out to estimate the intelligence of children in his area (Spearman, 1904/1927)

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68
Q

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the Multifactor Theory ?

A

“Spearman didn’t prove his idea of g” (Thurstone)

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69
Q

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the theory of Fluid and Crystallised Intelligence ?

A

“G has two separate components” (R.B. Cattell)

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70
Q

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the theory of Multiple Intelligences

A

educational psychologist → traditional intelligence testing incomprehensive and not applicable in the educational setting (Gardner, 1983/ 1996)

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71
Q

IQ as defined by W. Stern?

A

(mental age/ biological age)*100

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72
Q

G’?

A

underlying intelligence required for all types = abstract ability to recognise relationships between objects, events, information and make inferences

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73
Q

S’?

A

type of intelligence for specific tasks (vocabulary, mathematical, spatial

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74
Q

Fluid vs. Crystallised Intelligence

A

reasoning and problem solving skills vs. factual knowledge/ stored information

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75
Q

Intelligence in Stenberg’s words

A

layperson’s ideas and conceptualisation of the defining qualities of intelligence

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76
Q

Intelligence in Simon and Binet’s terms?

A

alignment of mental age and developmental age leading to increased or decreased ability to perform daily tasks ranging in difficulty

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77
Q

Intelligence in Spearman’s terms?

A

intelligence is made up of specific abilities and general intelligenceg: (mental energy) ability to see relationships and draw inferences → influences ‘s’

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78
Q

Intelligence in Thurstone’s words?

A

‘G’ results from seven mental abilities

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79
Q

Intelligence after Cattell?

A

‘G’ is made up of an dynamic interaction of crystallised and fluid intelligence whereby represents our factual knowledge and the other problem solving/ critical thinking skills

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80
Q

Intelligence in Gardner’s eyes?

A

intelligence is the sum of processes that can take place different intelligences reside in different parts of the brain (?)

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81
Q

Sternberg et al. 1981?

A

asking one group of people to list behaviours that were characteristic of intelligence, academic intelligence, everyday intelligence or unintelligence, asking another group of people to rate how well each of those behaviours reflected intelligence.

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82
Q

What three dimensions of intelligence were found using the findings from this investigation? Sternberg et al. 1981

A

Verbal ability, Practical Problem-Solving, Social Competence

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83
Q

One of the lasting contributions of Binet and Simon’s test is that children’s performance on the test is compared to

A

How well the child should do at that age The performance of children of the same age

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84
Q

Two widely used IQ Tests

A

Wechsler Tests (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale & Wechsler Scale for Children 1955) Raven’s progressive matrices (1938)

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85
Q

What is the Flynn effect influenced by (Neisser, 1998a)?

A

Length of schooling Test-taking sophistication: understanding and getting used to IQ tests as their incorporated into schooling → impact on non-verbal intelligence? Only 5 points increase when retaking Child-rearing: educational programmes Head start program for disadvantaged children: significant immediate gains but asymptotic curve Visual and technical environment: adverts are more subtle, learning through complicated visual materials → little evidence Nutrition

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86
Q

Who’s the theorist behind the implicit theory of intelligence?

A

R.J. Stenberg (2001)

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87
Q

What are four implicit theories of intelligence, and why are they important?

A
  1. People perceive and evaluate the intelligence of themselves, and others to inform their actions in the real world.
  2. can lead to more formal theories and investigations using the scientific method
  3. avenues for researchers to explore possibly false explicit and formal theories
  4. can inform theories around intelligence in terms of how it develops and/or any cross-cultural differences
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88
Q

verbal ability

A

wide vocabulary can converse on most topics

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89
Q

What are the six factors of intelligence identified by Sternberg in 1985?

A
  1. fluid thought
  2. practical problem-solving ability
  3. intellectual balance and integration
  4. contextual intelligence
  5. verbal ability
  6. goal orientation and attainment
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90
Q

practical problem-solving ability

A

identifying correct and wrong answers, tends to see attainable goals and accomplish them

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91
Q

intellectual balance and integration

A

ability to understand and interpret environment; learning, remembering

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92
Q

contextual intelligence

A

recognising connections and distinctions

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93
Q

goal orientation and attainment

A

tends to obtain + use the information for specific purposes

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94
Q

thinks quickly, mathematical ability

A

fluid thought

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95
Q

What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers/punishers?

A
  • Primary reinforcers/punishers are biologically significant stimuli that are naturally appetitive or aversive.
  • Secondary or conditioned reinforcers/punishers are appetitive or aversive as a result of being associated with primary reinforcers/punishers.
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96
Q

Why is the nutrition hypothesis hard to test?

A

Deprivations of any kind always result in cognitive decline

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97
Q

What are the two hypotheses on the Flynn effect?

A

nutrition hypothesis vs. cognitive stimulation hypothesis

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98
Q

What is the nutrition hypothesis?

A

Intelligence is increased with good nutrition, as are height, lifespan, and health

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99
Q

What is the cognitive simulation hypothesis?

A

higher intelligence scores are derived from improvements in cognitive stimulation (improved schooling, visual)

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100
Q

What would be the outcome if nutrition or stimulation was poor according to the nutrition and cognitive stimulation hypotheses?

A
  • bad nutrition: mode of the bell curve of intelligence should be noticeable (closer to the lower end)
  • poor stimulation: all levels should rise across generations
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101
Q

What is the debate around the Head Start program?

A
  • IQ scores after children leave the program fall
  • underprivileged children return to the same environment, which might contribute to these effects
  • questionable lasting educational benefits
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102
Q

What are the six countries people have full distribution data sets for so they can investigate the nutrition hypotheses (Flynn,2007)?

A
  • France, Netherlands, Denmark, USA, Spain, Norway
  • Proof only for 3 countries Denmark, Spain, Norway
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103
Q

What did the results of his study suggest about the role of schooling in IQ?

A

Is not as important as they initially thought, as evidenced by the 15 points gained in non-verbal intelligence and only 9 point difference in verbal intelligence

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104
Q

Heritability

A

estimate of the average proportion of variance for any behaviour, thought to be accounted for by genetic factors across the population how far variability in phenotypic variance is attributable to genotypic variance.

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105
Q

Twin Studies

A

possibility of comparing different types of genetic makeup to compare genetic influence because different types of twins share different proportions of genes dizygotic 50% monozygotic 100%

106
Q

Critique of Twin Studies

A

on their own not insightful potentially because all children share an estimated average of 50 per cent of their genes withtheir parents and their siblings using observation, interview or questionnaire measuresalso presents a problem because similarities betweenpersonalities might be because of environmental influence(e.g. an extraverted son might be like his extraverted father

107
Q

Behavioural Genetics

A

looks at the relationships between genes, environment and behaviour estimating the extent of genetic heritability of behaviour across a population; stating the genetic heritability of that behaviour in terms of shared variance

108
Q

Additive Assumption

A

two dimensions that determine heritability: the genetic part and (2) the environment (outdated for genetic heritability) E+G= 100

109
Q

Genetic Heritability

A

Assessment of how any extent of phenotypical manifestations in a child are caused by their genetic inheritance

110
Q

Examples for Phenotypes?

A

physical appearance, behaviour, intelligence, personality, observable/measurable properties

111
Q

H^2 ?

A

Estimated average of genetic heritability across a population taken from samples of studies^2* (rmz-rdz)

112
Q

What are the three main methods of assessing genetic heritability?

A

Family Studies, Twin Studies, Adoption Studies Plomin 2004

113
Q

The problem with Family Studies? (2)

A

Robert Plomin 2004 on their own they tell us very little about g.i. because children are assumed to share an estimated average of 50% with their siblings and parents similarities found using observation, interview or questionnaire mesures might be because of the environmental influence of the parent -> solution twin and adoption studies

114
Q

Family Studies

A

Researchers examine associations between parental and child behaviour within a family

115
Q

Adoption Studies

A

possibility of comparing different types of genetic makeup to compare genetic and environmental influence at the same time because different types of twins share different proportions of genes if two twins show similar behaviours despite being raised in different environments = evidence genetic heritability all these studies are considered when examining genetic inheritance

116
Q

What does and doesn’t genetic inheritance refer to?

A

Heritability estimates doesn’t refer to specific individuals but certain populations of people so MZ, DZ, Family members, parents and children

117
Q

What does a heritability estimate of 50% mean?

A

it doesn’t mean we inherited this amount from genes but that across a certain population the genetic heritability of a certain trait is estimated at an average of 50%

118
Q

Concordance Rate

A

probability that a percentage of blood relatives exhibited in a particular trait will/does overlap with other scores in a sample => average of all rates is the heritability estimate

119
Q

Explain h =”font-size:x-small;”>2

A

In twin studies correlations between MZ are usually twice as high so estimates are derived by doubling the difference in correlations between MZ and DZ

120
Q

Who were behavioural geneticist who commented on the estimation of heritability of personality based on American, Australian and European samples at the end of of the 20th centurary? How high was their estimate?

A

Plomin (1996) & Riemann and De Raad (1998) estimated a moderate heritability of personality from genetic factors, accounting for between 20 and 50 per cent of phenotypic variance.
| P.199

121
Q

What is the key takeaways from the adoption studies?

A

correlations for MZ reared apart are greater than for DZ reared together and apart suggests a genetic influence on personality for both extraversion and neuroticism

122
Q

In general, the studies summarised here suggest substantial heritability for genetic influence on personality. Genetic factors can sometimes explain as much X per cent of the variance within the main personality dimensions.

A

40-50%
|Pedersen et al. (1988) p.200

123
Q

Who brought about the change from additive assumption to heritability estimates?

A

Authors such as US psychologists E. E. Maccoby (2000) and Plomin (2004), who researched and later critically suggested that the additive principle of determining heritability of personality (or any phenotype) is not applicable any more or even the concept of genetic inheritability all together.

124
Q

What are the two main issues with additive assumption?

A
  1. estimating the environment (E) is usually done without utilising any direct measures of environmental factors. Ex.: researchers often compute genetic heritability, and then subtract that from 100 per cent.
  2. when genetic heritability is large, it assumes that all environmental factors associated with that behaviour must be small. It is better to see human person- ality as a joint result of an interaction between the individ- ual’s genes and their environmental factors. Consequently, personality should not be seen as the result of ‘Genetics + Environment’ but rather ‘Genetics × Environment’. For example, it is better to view the relative influences of genes and environment on personality as the result of a long-term interaction, with environmental factors triggering certain genetic behaviours and the effects of the environment differing between individuals because of their genetic makeup.
125
Q

What are the six main considerations in behavioural genetics in terms of personality?

A
  1. Conceptions of heritability and the environment
  2. Different types of genetic variance
  3. Shared versus non-shared environmental influences
  4. The representativeness of twin and adoption studies
  5. Assortative mating
  6. The changing world of genetics
126
Q

What are the four main considerations in behavioural genetics as far as intelligence is concerned?

A
  1. Conceptions of Heritability
  2. Different types or genetic variance
  3. The representativeness of twin and adoption studies
  4. Assortative Mating
127
Q

Additive genetic variation

A

genetic variation in behaviour that is the total of the individual’s genes inherited from their parents

128
Q

non-additive genetic variances

A

dominant genetic variance and epistatic genetic variance or interactive genetic variance

129
Q

Epigenetics

A

process describing (epi)gene expression resulting from environmental factors that either suppress or activate our dispositions

130
Q

What is the Flynn effect influenced by (Neisser, 1998a)?

A

Length of schooling Test-taking sophistication: understanding and getting used to IQ tests as their incorporated into schooling → impact on non-verbal intelligence? Only 5 points increase when retaking Child-rearing: educational programmes Head start program for disadvantaged children: significant immediate gains but asymptotic curve Visual and technical environment: adverts are more subtle, learning through complicated visual materials → little evidence Nutrition

131
Q

What are the five processes by which Harris (1995) explains that non-shared environmental factors determine personality and intelligence?

A
  1. context-specific socialisation
  2. outside-the-home socialisation
  3. transmission of culture via group processes
  4. group processes that widen differences between social groups
  5. group processes that widen differences among individuals within the group
132
Q

According to Kamin and Goldberger (2002), do twin studies over- or under-estimate the role of genetics? Why?

A

Twin studies overestimate the influence of genetics, because identical twins may have more similar environments than nonidentical twins.

133
Q

Why does Stoolmiller (1998) argue that placement strategies influence the conclusions that can be drawn from adoption studies regarding heritability?

A

Adoption agencies may favour placing children in more affluent households with less exposure to sociodemographic adversity. Therefore, the influence of economic status is never explored in these studies.

134
Q

What are the four environmental influences on intelligence discussed in the reading at the beginning of this lesson?

A
  1. school and education
  2. biological variables and maternal effects: nutrition, lead and prenatal factors
  3. family environment: shared and nonshared environments within and outside the family factors, social class and socioeconomic status, birth order and family size
  4. culture: decontextualisation, quantification and biologisation.
135
Q

In terms of the influence of education on intelligence, what did Nessier et al. (1996) find?

A

Nessier et al. (1996) found that education is both an independent and dependent variable. School attendance (education as independent variable) is likely to increase intelligence; and increased intelligence is likely to influence your school attendance, the duration of your schooling and the quality of your school (education as dependent variable).

136
Q

What’s the Wilson effect?

A

The heritability of IQ increases with age.

137
Q

Conditioned Inhibition

A

A conditioned inhibitor is a stimulus that predicts the absence of an outcome.

138
Q

How do you learn that a stimulus predicts the absence of an outcome?

A

This cannot be established simply by pairing a stimulus with no outcome, as that would just result in nolearning.

139
Q

Extinction Treatment

A

in a conditioned inhibition paradigm, remove the reward when the stimulus is presented after it’s trained

140
Q

Critique of learning theory:

A

Fails to address the complexity of human behaviour, and too heavily based on animal studies.

141
Q

What is Behavioural Psychology?

A

Behaviour is learned• Individual difference in behaviour is the result of differentlearning experiences that people have had and thesituations in which they find themselves

142
Q

Research definition of learning:

A

“A long lasting change in behaviour that results fromexperience”

143
Q

Habituation is the simplest form of learning:

A

it is –learning NOT to respond to an unimportant event

144
Q

Explain Pavlovian Conditioning

A

<img></img>

145
Q

What does classical conditioning provide us with

A

a way to learn about cause-effect relations between environmental events

146
Q

What are two important factors in classical conditioning

A

Sequence and Timing

147
Q

Extinction

A

Present bell with no food following* ➜ reversal of conditioning process* ➜ extinction (association isundone)

148
Q

Acquisition of new knowledge depends on

A

Intensity of US -> rapidness of learning Timing -> Optimal: Presentation of the CS occurs shortly before the US

149
Q

Associative strength

A

The strength of the connection between internal representationsof the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus which determines the strength ofthe conditioned response (the Rescorla-Wagner model outlines this).

150
Q

Associability /conditionability

A

Theease with which the strength of a conditioned response to a stimulus can beincreased by subsequent conditioning.

151
Q

Error term

A

Difference betweenwhat you expected to happen and what actually happens

152
Q

Contiguity

A

The temporal and spatial(time & space) relationship between events can influence the strength ofassociation. (arriving at the same time)

153
Q

CS-UScontingency

A

Thedegree to which the US occurs during the presentation of the CS.

154
Q

What are positive, negative and zero contingency?

A
  • Positive: US is more likely present than the absent
  • Negative: US is more likely absent than the present
  • zero: US is equally likely during the presence and the absence of the CS.
155
Q

Blocking

A

Kamin’s (1969) blocking effect study demonstrates thatconditioning to a stimulus could be blocked if the stimulus were reinforced incompound with a previously conditioned stimulus. A+, AB+, B+ = blocked conditioning of B

156
Q

The summation principle

A

When the associative strength of individual stimuli are presentedtogether, the individual strengths are added together.

157
Q

Cue competition

A

If two cues are trained in compound, they will compete for associative strength with the paired outcome, so that if we train AB+, the strength of association that develops between A and the outcome, will be weaker than the association between stimulus and outcome if we trained C+.

158
Q

Overshadowing

A

The disruption of conditioning with one stimulus because of the presence of another stimulus. -> stronger conditioned stimulus will overshadow a weaker one

159
Q

Conditioned compensatory response:

A

The body usually tries to maintain a state of homeostasis. When people use drugs, the body and brain learn to counteract the effects of the drug upon presentation of conditioned stimuli (cues, e.g. needle) and respond to produce physiological reactions that are opposite to that of the drug (see Siegal paper)

160
Q

Acquisition

A

is demonstrated. At first, the word can by itself causes no special response. After repeated pairings of the word can and the water, the word by itself gradually becomes more likely to cause a CR.

161
Q

Stimulus generalisation

A

occurs when words that sound like can (e.g., cam, ban, ran, cap) lead to a CR.

162
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

occurs when different stimulus words produce differences in the CRs. In the demonstration, CRs are strongest and most likely to occur after the word can. They are weakest and least likely to occur after stimulus words that do not sound at all like can (e.g., dish, board, smoke).

163
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

has occurred after extinction when a long string of words in which can is not included is followed by the word can, and the word can again causes a CR. Such a string occurs near the end of the demonstration.

164
Q

Reconditioning savings

A

is demonstrated at the end of the list, where the word can and a squirt are again paired. At this point, fewer trials are needed to achieve strong, reliable CRs compared with the original acquisition at the beginning of the list.

165
Q

What are the Clinical applications of Classical Conditioning? (Assumption)

A

Psychopathology = learned maladaptiveresponse to a situationthat may have generalised to other situations orsimilar stimuli ➜ it could beunlearned (systematic desensitisation, aversion therapy)

166
Q

Skinner’s approach: Instrumental/operant conditioning

A

Instrumental/operant conditioning tells us about the relations between environmental stimuli and our own behaviour: 1. There is an outcome that reinforces behaviour 2. There is a relationship between response and outcome. <img></img>

167
Q

What does operant refer to?

A

The term ‘operant’ refers to the fact that anorganism learns through responding: throughoperating on the environment.

168
Q

How do Habituation, Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning relate?

A
169
Q

What does Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect say?

A

If an action/response is encountered with aversive or positive measures the response might be weakened

170
Q

What is the main critique and relevancy of The Law of Effect

A

Critique : ‘Satisfaction’ is too mentalistic, and implieswe can observe and measure subjective feelings Impact : Law of Effect stimulated experimental studiesaimed at understanding behaviour - environmentinteraction

171
Q

Baby Albert (Watson & Rayner, 1920)

A

Watson was influenced by Pavlov’s work.He argued that, given the correct stimuli, the organismcould learn to behave (give responses) in a specificway, just how Pavlov’s dogs had ‘learned’ to associatethe bell with the appearance of food.

172
Q

What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?

A
  • Something is added to increase behaviour (reward) = positve
  • A behaviour that removes a negative outcome is introduced (applying sunscreen not to get sunburned) = negative
173
Q

Examples for positive or negative punishment

A
  • positve punishment: decreasing behaviour by introducing unfavourable outcome (screaming)
  • negative punishment: decreasing behaviour by removing privilege (taking attention away)
174
Q

Intermittent or partialreinforcement schedules

A

Not everyrecurrent of a response isreinforced

175
Q

What are the different types of reinforcement schedules

A

*knowing that after filling each cart they’ll be rewarded

176
Q

How do goal-directed behaviours, conditioning and habits relate?

A
177
Q

How do goal-directed behaviours differ from habitual behaviours?

A
  • they are consciously controlled
  • the response leads to an outcome
  • with repetition they become habitual
178
Q

How could you test whether a behaviourwas/was not habitual?

A
  1. Determining whether the behaviourcontinues in the absence of theoutcome 2. Determining whether the behaviourcontinues when the outcome isdevalued…
179
Q

According to the dopamine hypothesis when should a spike in dopamine occur in the blocking paradigm

A

Immediately after the light and not after the reward to proof that there’s not learning

180
Q

Feature-positivediscrimination

A

A discrimination inwhich an outcome isdelivered during acompound of twostimuli, but not duringone of the stimuliby itself.

181
Q

Negative patterning

A

A discrimination inwhich an outcome isdelivered during acompound of twostimuli, but not duringeither stimulusby itself.

182
Q

Configural cue

A

A hypothetical stimulus that is assumed to be created by presenting two stimuli together. Different pairs of stimuli are assumed to create different configural cues.

183
Q

Difference between configural and elemental models of discrimination learning?

A

Configural models claim that that learning occurs only for a compound AB while elemental models assume that for a compound AB learning occurs for both elements A & B so the association is summed up.

184
Q

Instrumental conditioning is when an organism learns the association between two stimuli.
The term ‘operant’ refers to the fact that an organism learns through responding …

A

under the consideration of their own behaviour through operating on the environment

185
Q

When conditioning a dog to salvate, what is the UCS, UCR, CS and CR before, during and after conditioning?

A
186
Q

How does three-term contingency work?

A
187
Q

Who’s responsible for the developement of operant conditioning

A

Edward Thorndike 1898

188
Q

Thorndike’s study 1898

A

Hungry cat in a puzzle box Escape to eat if it operated a latch that opened the door First random behaviour Then accidental operation of door until it became a deliberate action <strong>learning by trial and accidental success</strong>

189
Q

Watson & Rainer 1920 (Aim, Method, Result, Importance)

A

Aim study the concept of classical conditioning, more specifically conditioned emotional responses on people (fear)

Method Albert initially did not display a fear of laboratory rats (9 months), producing a startled and fearful response to a loud noise made by banging a hammer on a metal bar (UCS that causes the UCR fear). Albert began to reach for a rat, the noise was made behind his head. Repeated → generalised fear of other white, furry objects paired the rat with the noise seven times in two sessions, one week apart.When the rat was presented on its own, Albert became distressed and avoided the rat. Five days later, Alben was exposed to a number of other objects such as familiar wooden blocks, a rabbit, a dog, a sealskin coat, white cotton, the heads of Watson and two assistants, a Santa Claus mask and a packet of cocoon wool

Result conditioned to fear rats in the absence to the noise

Important First experiment and successful attempt at conditioning fear in human first experiment in which fear was experimentally conditioned in a human being

190
Q

Watson on Consciousness

A

too subjective to lend itself to scientific investigation. Inner thoughts and psychodynamic processes don’t cause behaviour

191
Q

Watson’s definition of psychology? Psychology can be defined as…

A

the objective study of behaviour and the stimuli which produce such behaviour

192
Q

What should Psychology focus on according to Watson? On the

A

Exclusively limited to measurable explicit (seen by eye) and measurable implicit behaviours (using measurement technology, e.g. skin conductance, saliva)

193
Q

What would Skinner say about anxiety?

A

It stems from developmentally learned maladaptive responses. Physiological responses correlating to anxiety are due to a change in preparatory behaviour when presented with a stressful stimulus and not personality

194
Q

Darwian explanation for individual differences

A

Caused by feedback loops of genetic inheritance and situational determinats which were reinforced in the course of evolution. This means individual differences are due to genes.

195
Q

What is the claim of Maslow’s theory of human motivation

A

Humans aim to produce pleasant and to avoid painful events. Even private internal behaviour is not caused by emotions but said desire. Intentions are responses to internal stimuli.

196
Q

What are the limitations of classical conditioning (3)?

A
  1. too simplistic for more learning conditions because it’s only a stimulus followed by response
  2. doesn’t answer what happens after response
  3. Reinforcement?
197
Q

Explain the result of Skinner’s Operant Chamber

A

Result: learning occurs despite varied reinforcement schedules there is a lever of some sort that the animal in the course of exploring the box will press at some point. animal is rewarded with food. an electronic device attached to the lever to record the animal’s rate of pressing. after the bar pressing had resulted in the animal being reinforced with food, the rate at which the animal pressed the bar increased.

198
Q

Shaping means

A

reinforcing any behaviour that successively approximates the desired response ⇒ rewards only if it gradually aligns with the wished response i.e. the gradual association process.

199
Q

How and why does IR work against extinction

A

because not every situation constitutes to the reinforcement of a response so the varying ratio or interval doesn’t initially signal extinction

200
Q

How does contingency relate to excitatory or inhibitory learning?

A
  • Positive CS-UScontingency –> excitatory conditioning
  • Negative CS-UScontingency –> inhibitory learning.
201
Q

Contingency

A

the fact that the CS providesinformation about the US’s arrival

202
Q

The Rescorla-Wagner equation is:

A

ΔV = αβ(λ – ΣV)

203
Q

The Rescorla-Wagner equation is used to predict the

A

The Rescorla-Wagner model describes the rate of change in associative strength (between stimulusand outcome or response and outcome or stimulus and stimulus) through conditioning.This model focuses on error driven learning.

204
Q

Assumptions of Rescorla-Wagner error prediction model with regard tothe unconditioned stimulus (US)

A

The effectiveness of US depends on how different it is from what isexpected The amount of learning on a given trial is a function of the surprisevalue of the US (more surprise then more conditioning)

205
Q

What does ΔV mean?

A

change in associative strength (i.e., the strength of the association between the CS and the US)

206
Q

What does the α value represent

A

α is the salience of the CS, i.e., how much the CS grabs your attention. E.g., the salience of a brightflashing red light should be higher than the salience of a plain red square. With a strong CS, α shouldapproach 1, but with a weaker stimulus α should tend towards 0.

207
Q

What does β mean?

A

β is the salience or motivational value of the US, the outcome, e.g., the motivational value of chocolateas a US might be higher than the motivational value of lettuce as a US. The more we desire an outcome,the more we will learn about it.

208
Q

What does the λ mean?

A

λ is the outcome (the US). This is usually only 1 or 0 – 1 when the outcome or US is present, and 0 whenthe outcome or US is absent.

209
Q

What does ΣV mean?

A

ΣV is the sum of all the associative strengths of all the stimuli at the beginning of that trial.

210
Q

What is central to the Rescorla-Wagner prediction

A

role of surprise

211
Q

The strength of a Pavlovian conditioned response (CR) depends upon

A

the strengthof the connection between internal representations of the CS and the US… theassociative strength of the CS.

212
Q

Cue Competition: the principle of summation

A

This means that if two cues are trainedin compound, they will compete for associative strength with the pairedoutcome <img></img>

213
Q

Conditioned Inhibition

A

A conditioned inhibitor is a stimulus that predicts the absence of an outcome.

214
Q

How do you learn that a stimulus predicts the absence of an outcome?

A

This cannot be established simply by pairing a stimulus with no outcome, as that would just result in nolearning.

215
Q

Extinction Treatment

A

in a conditioned inhibition paradigm, remove the reward when the stimulus is presented after it’s trained

216
Q

What are the three strengths of the RW model?

A
  1. the equation allows qualitative predictions
  2. heuristic value for other associative learning theories
  3. helped with understanding numerous psychological processes
    | The model provides a good account of many of the facts of compound conditioning, BUT not all the effects associated with blocking and overshadowing are consistent with it. What are the strengths
217
Q

What are the limitations of the RW model?

A
  1. no adequate account for the role of surprise when blocking is considered
  2. no adequate account of extinction
  3. inappropriate account for discrimination
  4. inhibition is conceptualised as negative associative strength
218
Q

What’s Donald Hebb’s (1949) learning theory

A

When individual cells are activated at the same time, they establish connecting synapses or strengthen existing onesand thus become a functional unit. These are the structuralbases of memory.

219
Q

Synapse

A

specialised junction through which neural signals are transmitted from one neuron (the presynaptic neuron) to another (the postsynaptic neuron)

220
Q

Hebbian synapse

A

increase its effectiveness as a result of simultaneous activity in the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons. Such synapses are essential for many kinds of associative learning.

221
Q

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

main form of synaptic plasticity reflecting theactivity of synaptic information storage processes, and has been identified as the likelycellular correlate of learning and memory

222
Q

Explain the principle of LTP

A

One or more axons connected to a dendrite act as source for stimuli -> sudden and strong stimulation leaves some synapses depolarised/potentiated (more responsive to more stimuli) for varying amount of time

223
Q

What is associativity in long-term potentiation?

A

The response to axon 2 is initially weak. Briefly pairing it withrapid stimulation in axon 1 strongly depolarizes the dendrite.Afterward, the response to axon 2 (as well as axon 1) is enhanced.

224
Q

How does the biological basis relate to Pavlovian Conditioning?

A

This relates to learning, as previous experience has led to a long-term change inthe behaviour of the synapse, and it can be argued that this is related to surprise asthis is a result of a ‘burst of intense stimulation’ – a difference in what was expected(i.e. a prediction error).

225
Q

What did Schultz 2007 find on the role of dopamine in learning theory?

A

dopaminergic neurons exhibitburst activity, also known as ‘phasic activation,’following primary food and liquid rewards and conditioned visual, auditory, and somatosensory reward-predicting stimuli

226
Q

Does dopamine provides a biological signal for an error prediction, therefore providing a biologicalindication for surprise?

A

no dopamine activity to the CS, because lacking association with the reward outcome or US -> dopaminergic neurons shift towards CS after successive trials -> after dopamine reaction only to CS not to outcome/reward or US

227
Q

Absence of a reward following a blocked stimulus does not induce a neuronal response

A

When the light, the blocked predictor, was presented with no reward in the test stage, shown asblocking Group A in the table, they saw no dopamine activity Had an association been learnt between the noise and the light, we would expect to see increased dopamineactivity to the presentation of the light, and a depression of dopamine activity when no reward is presented . ➜ That this did not occur supports the findings of the blocking paradigm, as the prior learning about the noise atstage one ‘blocked’ the learning about the light at stage two, and this provides support for the role of dopamine insignalling prediction error.

228
Q

Neuronal activation following the delivery of a reward after a blocked stimulus

A

For blocking Group B, when a reward was presented after the light, there was dopamine activity to thereward. Had an association been learnt between the light and the reward, then we would have expected to see increased dopamine activity to the light, not the reward . ➜ That this did not occur supports the findings of the blocking paradigm, as the prior learning about the noise atstage one ‘blocked’ the learning about the light at stage two, and this provides support for the role of dopamine insignalling prediction error.

229
Q

What are the arguments against Schultz’s (2007) design supporting the claim that dopamine activity is signalling error prediction?

A
  1. no exact replication with punishment or aversive outcome
  2. Would dopamine still fire in the original experiment
230
Q

What are the arguments in favour of Schultz’s (2007) design supporting the claim that dopamine activity is signalling error prediction?

A
  1. the observed pattern does support the role of dopamine signalling prediction error
  2. prediction error regards learning in general and is not limited to learning about rewarding outcomes
231
Q

What key does Siegel 2016 outline in the relation between Pavlovian Conditioning, tolerance and addiction

A

Conditioned Compensatory Responses

232
Q

Siegel (2016) The Heroin Overdose Mystery two key points with Classical Conditioning

A

UR is NOT the effect of the drug, it is the bodily process that addresses the effect of the drug – the body’s RESPONSE CS all stimuli or contextual cues associated with the drug => illicits body’s indirect response

233
Q

What is the alpha response in the Heroin overdose mystery

A

a drug is the directresponse that the drug causes, i.e. a rush, depression of respiration.

234
Q

What’s the beta response in the Heroin overdose mystery

A

homeostatic counter-response that acts to diminish the direct effects of the drug. These homeostatic counter-responses are the responses that enter into conditioning.

235
Q

What is Tolerance and how is it accomplished

A

cues remainconstant prior to the drug arriving intothe body, the conditioned compensatoryresponse (beta response) bothdiminishes the body’s level of reactivity tothe drug – the drug is expected andprocessed more efficiently, thus its effectsare attenuated (less pleasure)

236
Q

How do you think cues associated with a drug could cause craving, as part of addiction?

A
  1. Cues = elicit a conditioned compensatory response.
  2. For example, cues associated with heroin will elicit the conditioned compensatory responses of “despair,” increased pain sensitivity and increased frequency of breathing (which can make individuals feel anxious).
  3. The conditioned compensatory responses are all highly aversive.
  4. In the presence of cues associated with a drug, an individual will experience the negative/aversive-conditioned compensatory responses, and may then be motivated to take the drug simply to alleviate them
237
Q

Critique of learning theory:

A

Fails to address the complexity of human behaviour, and too heavily based on animal studies.

238
Q

What is Behavioural Psychology?

A

Behaviour is learned• Individual difference in behaviour is the result of differentlearning experiences that people have had and thesituations in which they find themselves

239
Q

Research definition of learning:

A

“A long lasting change in behaviour that results fromexperience”

240
Q

Habituation is the simplest form of learning:

A

it is –learning NOT to respond to an unimportant event

241
Q

Explain Pavlovian Conditioning

A
242
Q

What does classical conditioning provide us with

A

a way to learn about cause-effect relations between environmental events

243
Q

What are two important factors in classical conditioning

A

Sequence and Timing

244
Q

Extinction

A

Present bell with no food following* ➜ reversal of conditioning process* ➜ extinction (association isundone)

245
Q

Acquisition of new knowledge depends on

A

Intensity of US -> rapidness of learning Timing -> Optimal: Presentation of the CS occurs shortly before the US

246
Q

Associative strength

A

The strength of the connection between internal representationsof the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus which determines the strength ofthe conditioned response (the Rescorla-Wagner model outlines this).

247
Q

Associability /conditionability

A

Theease with which the strength of a conditioned response to a stimulus can beincreased by subsequent conditioning.

248
Q

Error term

A

Difference betweenwhat you expected to happen and what actually happens

249
Q

Contiguity

A

The temporal and spatial(time & space) relationship between events can influence the strength ofassociation. (arriving at the same time)

250
Q

CS-UScontingency

A

Thedegree to which the US occurs during the presentation of the CS.

251
Q

What are positive, negative and zero contingency?

A
  • Positive: US is more likely present than the absent
  • Negative: US is more likely absent than the present
  • zero: US is equally likely during the presence and the absence of the CS.
252
Q

Blocking

A

Kamin’s (1969) blocking effect study demonstrates thatconditioning to a stimulus could be blocked if the stimulus were reinforced incompound with a previously conditioned stimulus. A+, AB+, B+ = blocked conditioning of B

253
Q

The summation principle

A

When the associative strength of individual stimuli are presentedtogether, the individual strengths are added together.

254
Q

Cue competition

A

If two cues are trained in compound, they will compete for associative strength with the paired outcome, so that if we train AB+, the strength of association that develops between A and the outcome, will be weaker than the association between stimulus and outcome if we trained C+.

255
Q

Overshadowing

A

The disruption of conditioning with one stimulus because of the presence of another stimulus. -> stronger conditioned stimulus will overshadow a weaker one

256
Q

Conditioned compensatory response:

A

The body usually tries to maintain a state of homeostasis. When people use drugs, the body and brain learn to counteract the effects of the drug upon presentation of conditioned stimuli (cues, e.g. needle) and respond to produce physiological reactions that are opposite to that of the drug (see Siegal paper)

257
Q

Acquisition

A

is demonstrated. At first, the word can by itself causes no special response. After repeated pairings of the word can and the water, the word by itself gradually becomes more likely to cause a CR.

258
Q

What are the Clinical applications of Classical Conditioning? (Assumption)

A

Psychopathology = learned maladaptiveresponse to a situationthat may have generalised to other situations orsimilar stimuli ➜ it could beunlearned (systematic desensitisation, aversion therapy)

259
Q

How does contingency relate to excitatory or inhibitory learning?

A
  • Positive CS-UScontingency –> excitatory conditioning
  • Negative CS-UScontingency –> inhibitory learning.
260
Q

What was the unconditioned stimulus in Siegel’s (2016) heroin overdose mystery?

A

heroin

261
Q

What was the conditioned stimulus in Siegel’s (2016) heroin overdose mystery?

A

all cues present at the time of heroin consumption

262
Q

What was the direct response to the heroin in Siegel’s (2016) heroin overdose mystery?

A

nothing. neither ur nor cr

263
Q

What was the unconditioned response in Siegel’s (2016) heroin overdose mystery?

A

the homeostatic counterreaction reducing the effect of the physiological changes brought on by heroin

Psychology - Year 1 Weekly Flashcards (4 decks)

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