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Psychology - Year 1 Weekly Flashcards > PL1025: Learning, Personality and Intelligence > Flashcards

PL1025: Learning, Personality and Intelligence Flashcards

You can email destinee.mbo@forward-college.eu with any questions/suggestions about the flashcards in this deck.

1
Q

What is personality, according to Gordon Allport (1961)?

A

internal dynamic organisation of psychophysical systems that produce behavioural, emotional and cognitive patterns

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2
Q

What is the psychoanalytic approach to personality

A

psychoanalytic approach to personality was developed by Sigmund Freud. It is a clinically derived theory based on case studies of patients and Freud’s introspection about his own behaviour. The theory postulates that most of our behaviour is driven by unconscious motives

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2
Q

Which approach is Jung’s model of personality rooted in?

A

psychodynamic

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3
Q

Which dimensions are part of Jung’s model of personality?

A
  • extra/introversion
  • sensing/ thinking
  • feeling/ intuition

Basis for the Myers-Briggs indicator

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4
Q

What is the context of Jung’s model of personality rooted in?

A

Aim to combine Freud and Adler’s theories because people both incorporated extraverted and introverted components

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5
Q

Which approach is the five-factor model rooted in?

A

trait approach and factor analytic approach

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6
Q

What dimensions of personality are a part of the five-factor model?

A
  • openness
  • conscientiousness
  • extraversion
  • agreeableness
  • neuroticism

OCEAN

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7
Q

What role did the lexical approach play in OCEAN?

A

Allport assumed that important personality descriptors were linguistically encoded and indicated by frequent use

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8
Q

To which effect was factor analysis used in the development of the five-factor model?

A

Cattell used a factor analysis to group and reduce the list of personality traits based on participants’ ratings on the degree to which words applied to them. This led to 16 personality factors

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9
Q

Which role do Costa and McCrae take on in the five-factor model?

A

they had participants complete two questionnaires and used the results to reduce the 16 factors to 5 factors/traits

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10
Q

What is Eysenck and Gray’s model rooted in?

A

trait approach, biological approach

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11
Q

How do Eysenck and Gray describe extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism?

A
  • sensation-seeking, sociable and assertive
  • tense, anxious, moody, irrational
  • impulsive, aggressive, antisocial, creative
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12
Q

What is highlighted in Eysenck’s model of personality?

A

the importance of genes, biological determinants of personality, neural causes of extraversion, neuroticism

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13
Q

How does Eysenck explain extraversion and introversion?

A

Extraverted: underaroused reticulo-cortical circuit leads to sensation seeking
Introverted: overaroused reticulo-cortical circuit leads to avoidance of stimulating situations

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14
Q

How is Gray’s BAS/BIS theory a modifaction of Eysenck’s ARAS?

A
  • personality is the result of variations in the behavioural approach system (BAS), behavioural inhibition system (BIS) and fight-flight system
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15
Q

What is the main criticsim of Jung’s model of personality?

A
  • incomplete account of how personality develops
  • unclear, not parsimonious explanation
  • low reliability and difficult to test but there are multiple tests
  • large heuristic value
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16
Q

What is the main criticsim of Eysenck and Gray’s model of personality?

A
  • validity of biological claims: weak relationship between arousal measured by EEG and neuroticsm (Mathhews & Gilliand, 1999)
  • psychoticism precise enough to be measurable?
  • are three factors comprehensive enough to describe personality?
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17
Q

What is the main criticsim of the five-factor model of personality?

A
  • atheoretical and data driven but syill aims to explain
  • validity of lexical approach
  • representativeness of the traits
  • personality trait measures statistically account for 10% of variance in observed behaviour so how comprehensive is the theory really (Mischel, 1968)
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18
Q

How can theory be evaluated using the acronym DEEPCHAT

A
  • Description: simplify, clarify or identify important issues
  • Explanation: help understand why behaviour
  • Empirical Validity: generating predictions that can be empirically tested
  • Parsimony: few use of terms of the explanatory concepts included
  • Comprehensiveness: breadth of a theory (e.g. explaining normal & abnormal behaviour
  • Heuristic Value: stimulate new research?
  • Applied Value: practical usefulness in a wider context -> beneficial changes
  • Testable Concepts: ability to operationalise concepts of a theory -> reliably measurable?
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19
Q

Trait

A

fundamental units of personality representing dispositional responses conditional probability of a category of behaviours in a category of context (Mischel, 1999)

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20
Q

Lexical Approach

A

produce descriptive models of personality traits (no explanation) based on lexical hypothesis: differences in personality are important for social interaction so they have been assigned lables that are used in varying frequency and abundace which denotes the cultural relevancy

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21
Q

Eysenck Psychopathy vs. Neuroticism

A

difference in serverity: antisocial behaviour + high self-esteem vs. emotional unstability

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22
Q

Who facilitated the change from categorical types into trait dimensions?

A

Wilhelm Wundt (1874) when he revisted the four temperaments and reorganised them into dimensions (unchangable/changable, emotional/unemotional)

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23
Q

The strength and problem of biological theories of personality

A

usage of important psychological mechanisms vs. lack of consistent evidence (more assumed importance and oversimplification of ARAS, BAS/BIS)

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24
Q

psychodynamic approach

A

theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly unconscious between the different structures of the personality Jungian (Follower of Freud; applies to psychoanalysis too)

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25
Q

biological approach

A

assumes that biological factors influence our behavior and mental well-being in a cause-and-effect include genes, influence one is predisposed to some conditions, CNS rely on empirical findings (experiments, falsibility) meaning they are provable opposed to psychodynamic approaches

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26
Q

factor analytic approach?

A

used to regroup variables into a limited set of clusters, known as factors.

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27
Q

In reference to personality, what is a psychological construct?

A

A mental concept that influences behaviour via the mind-body interaction.

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28
Q

In considering the five-factor model of personality, Jung’s model of personality, and Eysenck & Gray’s model of personality, which one can be considered the LEAST parsimonious?

A

Jung’s model of personality describes such a wide range of structures within personality, many with overlapping functions and it is unclear how they relate

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29
Q

What assumption is the nomothetic approach based upon?

A

The nomothetic approach is based upon the assumption that there is a finite set of variables in existence that can be used to describe human personality.

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30
Q

Unobservable aspects of personality include such things as:

A

Thoughts, memories and dreams

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31
Q

Which of the following statements best defines factor analysis?

A

It is a multivariate data reduction statistical technique

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32
Q

Which statement is true?
a. Personality theorists (e.g. Jung, Freud) hold the assumption than individuals are inherently individualist
b. Personality theories transcend cultural contexts
c. Personality theory in psychology places the concept of The Self at the core of its theorising
d. Classic personality theorists were Western white men, who likely held the prevailing societal attitudes, biases, and prejudices of their time

A

A., C., D.

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33
Q

According to Eysenck’s biological model of personality, how does performance/ an emotional state change depending on levels of arousal?

A
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34
Q

I like to dabble with with both a trait approach and biological approach….second clue is I invented the Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS) toexplain that variations in extraversion and neuroticism are due to balancing excitatory and inhibitory mechanisms .

A

Eysenck

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35
Q

I’m a fan of Factor analysis and some might say I’m the sweet-16 guy…The second clue is Allport left me a lot of traits to work with.

A

Cattell

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36
Q

I decided to modify Eysenck’s work and like the biological approach….second clue is I proposed that personality was based on the interaction between 3different systems in the brain.

A

Gray

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37
Q

Maybe Galton was right, and the the secret to personality lies in the dictionary, count the synonyms that describe a personality trait!…..The second clue is,I put a lot of effort into analysing 18000 words related to personality….

A

Allport

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38
Q

I am a fan of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler’s work…..second clue is that a widely used personality inventory was developed by two women inspired bymy work.

A

Jung

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39
Q

Who’s part of the The Five Factor model evolution team?

A

Allport,Cattell, Costa & McCrae

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40
Q

Which statement accurately describes the relationship between the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) and extraversion?

a) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit manifests in extraversion.
b) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit extraversion.
c) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit introversion.
d) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit introversion.

A

b

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41
Q

What does ARAS signify?

A

Ascending Reticular Activating System

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42
Q

Which statement accurately describes the relationship between the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) and neuroticism?

a) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit manifests in neurotic behaviour.
b) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-cortical circuit calmness.
c) Overwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit neurotic behaviour.
d) Underwhelming ARAS activity in the reticulo-limbic circuit neurotic behaviour.

A

c

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43
Q

How does Eysenck explain extraversion and neuroticism?

A
  • Overarousal of reticulo-limbic circuit: low threshold for emotional stability and easy emotional arousal neuroticism
  • Underarousal of reticulo-limbic circuit: emotional stability
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44
Q

What does overactivity in the BAS lead to and why?

A

motivates to seek rewards –> impulsivity

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45
Q

What does an overactive BIS lead to and why?

A

anxiety because it motivates to avoid and be sensitive to punishment

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46
Q

Which aspect of Stenberg intelligence matches thinking quickly?

A

Fluid Thought

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47
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches demonstrating a good vocabulary?

A

verbal ability

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48
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to converse on almost any topic?

A

verbal ability

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49
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to recognise similarities and differences?

A

intellectual balance and integration

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50
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to understand and interpret his or her environment ?

A

contextual intelligence

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51
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to make connections and distinctions between ideas and things?

A

intellectual balance and integration

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52
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to have a thorough grasp of mathematics?

A

goal orientation and attainment

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53
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to have a thorough grasp of correct and incorrect answers?

A

practical problem solving ability

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54
Q

Which aspect of Sternberg intelligence matches the ability to see attainable goals and accomplish them?

A

→ practical problem-solving ability

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55
Q

What is the difference between Spearman’s and Thurstone’s G

A

Thurstone argued ‘g’ is a result of seven primary mental abilities. Spearman, on the other hand, argued that ‘g’ resulted in all aspects of intelligence.

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56
Q

Summarise the history of intelligence testing

A

Sir Francis –> Simon-Binet and the French Government –> Stanford-Binet (Terman) –> G (Spearman) Raven’s -> WSIC, WAIS–> Thurstone and Cattell’s interpretations of G –> Gardner’s 9 Intelligences –> Stenberg’s Laytheories

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57
Q

Which tests and intelligence concepts are culture-bound, and which ones are more general?

A
  • Culture bound: WSIC, WAIS
  • General: Raven
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58
Q

What is IQ deviation

A

(test score/ expected age score)*100 how much you deviated from the average IQ of 100

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59
Q

What do Western cultures emphasise about Intelligence according to Stenberg (1981)?

A

speed of mental processing and the ability to gather, assimilate and sort information

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60
Q

What do studies comparing cultural ideals of intelligence show?

A

Western views of intelligence highlight the individual’s cognitive skills and memory while eastern societies extend these qualities onto an individual’s social environment, understanding of how to navigate culture

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61
Q

How would an application of Simon-Binet’s concept of intelligence look

A

Recommended reading ages for books because they present a comparison of what abilities children of a specific age group should have

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62
Q

Why was the Standford-Binet scale better than the Binet-Simon scale?

A

Because its bigger sample size made for more representative results (N=50 < N>1000)

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63
Q

What is Spearman’s model of intelligence referred to?

A

Two-factor model

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64
Q

What is the context of the Implicit Theories?

A

innate interest and relevance to daily life

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65
Q

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the Binet-Simon Scale?

A

French Ministry of Public Instruction commissioned him to provide techniques to predict children’s success and which ones require special education (Simon & Binet, 1905)

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66
Q

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the Stanford-Binet Scale?

A

Binet-Simon testing used on Californian children → age norms didn’t fit (Terman, 1916)

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67
Q

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the theory of General Intelligence

A

wanting to set out to estimate the intelligence of children in his area (Spearman, 1904/1927)

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68
Q

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the Multifactor Theory ?

A

“Spearman didn’t prove his idea of g” (Thurstone)

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69
Q

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the theory of Fluid and Crystallised Intelligence ?

A

“G has two separate components” (R.B. Cattell)

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70
Q

Who’s the theorist behind and the context of the theory of Multiple Intelligences

A

educational psychologist → traditional intelligence testing incomprehensive and not applicable in the educational setting (Gardner, 1983/ 1996)

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71
Q

IQ as defined by W. Stern?

A

(mental age/ biological age)*100

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72
Q

G’?

A

underlying intelligence required for all types = abstract ability to recognise relationships between objects, events, information and make inferences

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73
Q

S’?

A

type of intelligence for specific tasks (vocabulary, mathematical, spatial

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74
Q

Fluid vs. Crystallised Intelligence

A

reasoning and problem solving skills vs. factual knowledge/ stored information

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75
Q

Intelligence in Stenberg’s words

A

layperson’s ideas and conceptualisation of the defining qualities of intelligence

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76
Q

Intelligence in Simon and Binet’s terms?

A

alignment of mental age and developmental age leading to increased or decreased ability to perform daily tasks ranging in difficulty

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77
Q

Intelligence in Spearman’s terms?

A

intelligence is made up of specific abilities and general intelligenceg: (mental energy) ability to see relationships and draw inferences → influences ‘s’

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78
Q

Intelligence in Thurstone’s words?

A

‘G’ results from seven mental abilities

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79
Q

Intelligence after Cattell?

A

‘G’ is made up of an dynamic interaction of crystallised and fluid intelligence whereby represents our factual knowledge and the other problem solving/ critical thinking skills

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80
Q

Intelligence in Gardner’s eyes?

A

intelligence is the sum of processes that can take place different intelligences reside in different parts of the brain (?)

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81
Q

Sternberg et al. 1981?

A

asking one group of people to list behaviours that were characteristic of intelligence, academic intelligence, everyday intelligence or unintelligence, asking another group of people to rate how well each of those behaviours reflected intelligence.

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82
Q

What three dimensions of intelligence were found using the findings from this investigation? Sternberg et al. 1981

A

Verbal ability, Practical Problem-Solving, Social Competence

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83
Q

One of the lasting contributions of Binet and Simon’s test is that children’s performance on the test is compared to

A

How well the child should do at that age The performance of children of the same age

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84
Q

Two widely used IQ Tests

A

Wechsler Tests (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale & Wechsler Scale for Children 1955) Raven’s progressive matrices (1938)

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85
Q

What is the Flynn effect influenced by (Neisser, 1998a)?

A

Length of schooling Test-taking sophistication: understanding and getting used to IQ tests as their incorporated into schooling → impact on non-verbal intelligence? Only 5 points increase when retaking Child-rearing: educational programmes Head start program for disadvantaged children: significant immediate gains but asymptotic curve Visual and technical environment: adverts are more subtle, learning through complicated visual materials → little evidence Nutrition

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86
Q

Who’s the theorist behind the implicit theory of intelligence?

A

R.J. Stenberg (2001)

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87
Q

What are four implicit theories of intelligence, and why are they important?

A
  1. People perceive and evaluate the intelligence of themselves, and others to inform their actions in the real world.
  2. can lead to more formal theories and investigations using the scientific method
  3. avenues for researchers to explore possibly false explicit and formal theories
  4. can inform theories around intelligence in terms of how it develops and/or any cross-cultural differences
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88
Q

verbal ability

A

wide vocabulary can converse on most topics

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89
Q

What are the six factors of intelligence identified by Sternberg in 1985?

A
  1. fluid thought
  2. practical problem-solving ability
  3. intellectual balance and integration
  4. contextual intelligence
  5. verbal ability
  6. goal orientation and attainment
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90
Q

practical problem-solving ability

A

identifying correct and wrong answers, tends to see attainable goals and accomplish them

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91
Q

intellectual balance and integration

A

ability to understand and interpret environment; learning, remembering

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92
Q

contextual intelligence

A

recognising connections and distinctions

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93
Q

goal orientation and attainment

A

tends to obtain + use the information for specific purposes

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94
Q

thinks quickly, mathematical ability

A

fluid thought

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95
Q

What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers/punishers?

A
  • Primary reinforcers/punishers are biologically significant stimuli that are naturally appetitive or aversive.
  • Secondary or conditioned reinforcers/punishers are appetitive or aversive as a result of being associated with primary reinforcers/punishers.
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96
Q

Why is the nutrition hypothesis hard to test?

A

Deprivations of any kind always result in cognitive decline

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97
Q

What are the two hypotheses on the Flynn effect?

A

nutrition hypothesis vs. cognitive stimulation hypothesis

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98
Q

What is the nutrition hypothesis?

A

Intelligence is increased with good nutrition, as are height, lifespan, and health

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99
Q

What is the cognitive simulation hypothesis?

A

higher intelligence scores are derived from improvements in cognitive stimulation (improved schooling, visual)

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100
Q

What would be the outcome if nutrition or stimulation was poor according to the nutrition and cognitive stimulation hypotheses?

A
  • bad nutrition: mode of the bell curve of intelligence should be noticeable (closer to the lower end)
  • poor stimulation: all levels should rise across generations
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101
Q

What is the debate around the Head Start program?

A
  • IQ scores after children leave the program fall
  • underprivileged children return to the same environment, which might contribute to these effects
  • questionable lasting educational benefits
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102
Q

What are the six countries people have full distribution data sets for so they can investigate the nutrition hypotheses (Flynn,2007)?

A
  • France, Netherlands, Denmark, USA, Spain, Norway
  • Proof only for 3 countries Denmark, Spain, Norway
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103
Q

What did the results of his study suggest about the role of schooling in IQ?

A

Is not as important as they initially thought, as evidenced by the 15 points gained in non-verbal intelligence and only 9 point difference in verbal intelligence

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104
Q

Heritability

A

estimate of the average proportion of variance for any behaviour, thought to be accounted for by genetic factors across the population how far variability in phenotypic variance is attributable to genotypic variance.

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105
Q

Twin Studies

A

possibility of comparing different types of genetic makeup to compare genetic influence because different types of twins share different proportions of genes dizygotic 50% monozygotic 100%

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106
Q

Critique of Twin Studies

A

on their own not insightful potentially because all children share an estimated average of 50 per cent of their genes withtheir parents and their siblings using observation, interview or questionnaire measuresalso presents a problem because similarities betweenpersonalities might be because of environmental influence(e.g. an extraverted son might be like his extraverted father

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107
Q

Behavioural Genetics

A

looks at the relationships between genes, environment and behaviour estimating the extent of genetic heritability of behaviour across a population; stating the genetic heritability of that behaviour in terms of shared variance

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108
Q

Additive Assumption

A

two dimensions that determine heritability: the genetic part and (2) the environment (outdated for genetic heritability) E+G= 100

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109
Q

Genetic Heritability

A

Assessment of how any extent of phenotypical manifestations in a child are caused by their genetic inheritance

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110
Q

Examples for Phenotypes?

A

physical appearance, behaviour, intelligence, personality, observable/measurable properties

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111
Q

H^2 ?

A

Estimated average of genetic heritability across a population taken from samples of studies^2* (rmz-rdz)

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112
Q

What are the three main methods of assessing genetic heritability?

A

Family Studies, Twin Studies, Adoption Studies Plomin 2004

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113
Q

The problem with Family Studies? (2)

A

Robert Plomin 2004 on their own they tell us very little about g.i. because children are assumed to share an estimated average of 50% with their siblings and parents similarities found using observation, interview or questionnaire mesures might be because of the environmental influence of the parent -> solution twin and adoption studies

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114
Q

Family Studies

A

Researchers examine associations between parental and child behaviour within a family

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115
Q

Adoption Studies

A

possibility of comparing different types of genetic makeup to compare genetic and environmental influence at the same time because different types of twins share different proportions of genes if two twins show similar behaviours despite being raised in different environments = evidence genetic heritability all these studies are considered when examining genetic inheritance

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116
Q

What does and doesn’t genetic inheritance refer to?

A

Heritability estimates doesn’t refer to specific individuals but certain populations of people so MZ, DZ, Family members, parents and children

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117
Q

What does a heritability estimate of 50% mean?

A

it doesn’t mean we inherited this amount from genes but that across a certain population the genetic heritability of a certain trait is estimated at an average of 50%

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118
Q

Concordance Rate

A

probability that a percentage of blood relatives exhibited in a particular trait will/does overlap with other scores in a sample => average of all rates is the heritability estimate

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119
Q

Explain h =”font-size:x-small;”>2

A

In twin studies correlations between MZ are usually twice as high so estimates are derived by doubling the difference in correlations between MZ and DZ

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120
Q

Who were behavioural geneticist who commented on the estimation of heritability of personality based on American, Australian and European samples at the end of of the 20th centurary? How high was their estimate?

A

Plomin (1996) & Riemann and De Raad (1998) estimated a moderate heritability of personality from genetic factors, accounting for between 20 and 50 per cent of phenotypic variance.
| P.199

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121
Q

What is the key takeaways from the adoption studies?

A

correlations for MZ reared apart are greater than for DZ reared together and apart suggests a genetic influence on personality for both extraversion and neuroticism

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122
Q

In general, the studies summarised here suggest substantial heritability for genetic influence on personality. Genetic factors can sometimes explain as much X per cent of the variance within the main personality dimensions.

A

40-50%
|Pedersen et al. (1988) p.200

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123
Q

Who brought about the change from additive assumption to heritability estimates?

A

Authors such as US psychologists E. E. Maccoby (2000) and Plomin (2004), who researched and later critically suggested that the additive principle of determining heritability of personality (or any phenotype) is not applicable any more or even the concept of genetic inheritability all together.

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124
Q

What are the two main issues with additive assumption?

A
  1. estimating the environment (E) is usually done without utilising any direct measures of environmental factors. Ex.: researchers often compute genetic heritability, and then subtract that from 100 per cent.
  2. when genetic heritability is large, it assumes that all environmental factors associated with that behaviour must be small. It is better to see human person- ality as a joint result of an interaction between the individ- ual’s genes and their environmental factors. Consequently, personality should not be seen as the result of ‘Genetics + Environment’ but rather ‘Genetics × Environment’. For example, it is better to view the relative influences of genes and environment on personality as the result of a long-term interaction, with environmental factors triggering certain genetic behaviours and the effects of the environment differing between individuals because of their genetic makeup.
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125
Q

What are the six main considerations in behavioural genetics in terms of personality?

A
  1. Conceptions of heritability and the environment
  2. Different types of genetic variance
  3. Shared versus non-shared environmental influences
  4. The representativeness of twin and adoption studies
  5. Assortative mating
  6. The changing world of genetics
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126
Q

What are the four main considerations in behavioural genetics as far as intelligence is concerned?

A
  1. Conceptions of Heritability
  2. Different types or genetic variance
  3. The representativeness of twin and adoption studies
  4. Assortative Mating
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127
Q

Additive genetic variation

A

genetic variation in behaviour that is the total of the individual’s genes inherited from their parents

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128
Q

non-additive genetic variances

A

dominant genetic variance and epistatic genetic variance or interactive genetic variance

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129
Q

Epigenetics

A

process describing (epi)gene expression resulting from environmental factors that either suppress or activate our dispositions

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130
Q

What is the Flynn effect influenced by (Neisser, 1998a)?

A

Length of schooling Test-taking sophistication: understanding and getting used to IQ tests as their incorporated into schooling → impact on non-verbal intelligence? Only 5 points increase when retaking Child-rearing: educational programmes Head start program for disadvantaged children: significant immediate gains but asymptotic curve Visual and technical environment: adverts are more subtle, learning through complicated visual materials → little evidence Nutrition

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131
Q

What are the five processes by which Harris (1995) explains that non-shared environmental factors determine personality and intelligence?

A
  1. context-specific socialisation
  2. outside-the-home socialisation
  3. transmission of culture via group processes
  4. group processes that widen differences between social groups
  5. group processes that widen differences among individuals within the group
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132
Q

According to Kamin and Goldberger (2002), do twin studies over- or under-estimate the role of genetics? Why?

A

Twin studies overestimate the influence of genetics, because identical twins may have more similar environments than nonidentical twins.

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133
Q

Why does Stoolmiller (1998) argue that placement strategies influence the conclusions that can be drawn from adoption studies regarding heritability?

A

Adoption agencies may favour placing children in more affluent households with less exposure to sociodemographic adversity. Therefore, the influence of economic status is never explored in these studies.

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134
Q

What are the four environmental influences on intelligence discussed in the reading at the beginning of this lesson?

A
  1. school and education
  2. biological variables and maternal effects: nutrition, lead and prenatal factors
  3. family environment: shared and nonshared environments within and outside the family factors, social class and socioeconomic status, birth order and family size
  4. culture: decontextualisation, quantification and biologisation.
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135
Q

In terms of the influence of education on intelligence, what did Nessier et al. (1996) find?

A

Nessier et al. (1996) found that education is both an independent and dependent variable. School attendance (education as independent variable) is likely to increase intelligence; and increased intelligence is likely to influence your school attendance, the duration of your schooling and the quality of your school (education as dependent variable).

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136
Q

What’s the Wilson effect?

A

The heritability of IQ increases with age.

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137
Q

Conditioned Inhibition

A

A conditioned inhibitor is a stimulus that predicts the absence of an outcome.

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138
Q

How do you learn that a stimulus predicts the absence of an outcome?

A

This cannot be established simply by pairing a stimulus with no outcome, as that would just result in nolearning.

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139
Q

Extinction Treatment

A

in a conditioned inhibition paradigm, remove the reward when the stimulus is presented after it’s trained

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140
Q

Critique of learning theory:

A

Fails to address the complexity of human behaviour, and too heavily based on animal studies.

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141
Q

What is Behavioural Psychology?

A

Behaviour is learned• Individual difference in behaviour is the result of differentlearning experiences that people have had and thesituations in which they find themselves

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142
Q

Research definition of learning:

A

“A long lasting change in behaviour that results fromexperience”

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143
Q

Habituation is the simplest form of learning:

A

it is –learning NOT to respond to an unimportant event

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144
Q

Explain Pavlovian Conditioning

A

<img></img>

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145
Q

What does classical conditioning provide us with

A

a way to learn about cause-effect relations between environmental events

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146
Q

What are two important factors in classical conditioning

A

Sequence and Timing

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147
Q

Extinction

A

Present bell with no food following* ➜ reversal of conditioning process* ➜ extinction (association isundone)

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148
Q

Acquisition of new knowledge depends on

A

Intensity of US -> rapidness of learning Timing -> Optimal: Presentation of the CS occurs shortly before the US

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149
Q

Associative strength

A

The strength of the connection between internal representationsof the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus which determines the strength ofthe conditioned response (the Rescorla-Wagner model outlines this).

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150
Q

Associability /conditionability

A

Theease with which the strength of a conditioned response to a stimulus can beincreased by subsequent conditioning.

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151
Q

Error term

A

Difference betweenwhat you expected to happen and what actually happens

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152
Q

Contiguity

A

The temporal and spatial(time & space) relationship between events can influence the strength ofassociation. (arriving at the same time)

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153
Q

CS-UScontingency

A

Thedegree to which the US occurs during the presentation of the CS.

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154
Q

What are positive, negative and zero contingency?

A
  • Positive: US is more likely present than the absent
  • Negative: US is more likely absent than the present
  • zero: US is equally likely during the presence and the absence of the CS.
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155
Q

Blocking

A

Kamin’s (1969) blocking effect study demonstrates thatconditioning to a stimulus could be blocked if the stimulus were reinforced incompound with a previously conditioned stimulus. A+, AB+, B+ = blocked conditioning of B

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156
Q

The summation principle

A

When the associative strength of individual stimuli are presentedtogether, the individual strengths are added together.

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157
Q

Cue competition

A

If two cues are trained in compound, they will compete for associative strength with the paired outcome, so that if we train AB+, the strength of association that develops between A and the outcome, will be weaker than the association between stimulus and outcome if we trained C+.

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158
Q

Overshadowing

A

The disruption of conditioning with one stimulus because of the presence of another stimulus. -> stronger conditioned stimulus will overshadow a weaker one

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159
Q

Conditioned compensatory response:

A

The body usually tries to maintain a state of homeostasis. When people use drugs, the body and brain learn to counteract the effects of the drug upon presentation of conditioned stimuli (cues, e.g. needle) and respond to produce physiological reactions that are opposite to that of the drug (see Siegal paper)

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160
Q

Acquisition

A

is demonstrated. At first, the word can by itself causes no special response. After repeated pairings of the word can and the water, the word by itself gradually becomes more likely to cause a CR.

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161
Q

Stimulus generalisation

A

occurs when words that sound like can (e.g., cam, ban, ran, cap) lead to a CR.

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162
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

occurs when different stimulus words produce differences in the CRs. In the demonstration, CRs are strongest and most likely to occur after the word can. They are weakest and least likely to occur after stimulus words that do not sound at all like can (e.g., dish, board, smoke).

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163
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

has occurred after extinction when a long string of words in which can is not included is followed by the word can, and the word can again causes a CR. Such a string occurs near the end of the demonstration.

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164
Q

Reconditioning savings

A

is demonstrated at the end of the list, where the word can and a squirt are again paired. At this point, fewer trials are needed to achieve strong, reliable CRs compared with the original acquisition at the beginning of the list.

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165
Q

What are the Clinical applications of Classical Conditioning? (Assumption)

A

Psychopathology = learned maladaptiveresponse to a situationthat may have generalised to other situations orsimilar stimuli ➜ it could beunlearned (systematic desensitisation, aversion therapy)

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166
Q

Skinner’s approach: Instrumental/operant conditioning

A

Instrumental/operant conditioning tells us about the relations between environmental stimuli and our own behaviour: 1. There is an outcome that reinforces behaviour 2. There is a relationship between response and outcome. <img></img>

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167
Q

What does operant refer to?

A

The term ‘operant’ refers to the fact that anorganism learns through responding: throughoperating on the environment.

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168
Q

How do Habituation, Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning relate?

A
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169
Q

What does Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect say?

A

If an action/response is encountered with aversive or positive measures the response might be weakened

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170
Q

What is the main critique and relevancy of The Law of Effect

A

Critique : ‘Satisfaction’ is too mentalistic, and implieswe can observe and measure subjective feelings Impact : Law of Effect stimulated experimental studiesaimed at understanding behaviour - environmentinteraction

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171
Q

Baby Albert (Watson & Rayner, 1920)

A

Watson was influenced by Pavlov’s work.He argued that, given the correct stimuli, the organismcould learn to behave (give responses) in a specificway, just how Pavlov’s dogs had ‘learned’ to associatethe bell with the appearance of food.

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172
Q

What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?

A
  • Something is added to increase behaviour (reward) = positve
  • A behaviour that removes a negative outcome is introduced (applying sunscreen not to get sunburned) = negative
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173
Q

Examples for positive or negative punishment

A
  • positve punishment: decreasing behaviour by introducing unfavourable outcome (screaming)
  • negative punishment: decreasing behaviour by removing privilege (taking attention away)
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174
Q

Intermittent or partialreinforcement schedules

A

Not everyrecurrent of a response isreinforced

175
Q

What are the different types of reinforcement schedules

A

*knowing that after filling each cart they’ll be rewarded

176
Q

How do goal-directed behaviours, conditioning and habits relate?

A
177
Q

How do goal-directed behaviours differ from habitual behaviours?

A
  • they are consciously controlled
  • the response leads to an outcome
  • with repetition they become habitual
178
Q

How could you test whether a behaviourwas/was not habitual?

A
  1. Determining whether the behaviourcontinues in the absence of theoutcome 2. Determining whether the behaviourcontinues when the outcome isdevalued…
179
Q

According to the dopamine hypothesis when should a spike in dopamine occur in the blocking paradigm

A

Immediately after the light and not after the reward to proof that there’s not learning

180
Q

Feature-positivediscrimination

A

A discrimination inwhich an outcome isdelivered during acompound of twostimuli, but not duringone of the stimuliby itself.

181
Q

Negative patterning

A

A discrimination inwhich an outcome isdelivered during acompound of twostimuli, but not duringeither stimulusby itself.

182
Q

Configural cue

A

A hypothetical stimulus that is assumed to be created by presenting two stimuli together. Different pairs of stimuli are assumed to create different configural cues.

183
Q

Difference between configural and elemental models of discrimination learning?

A

Configural models claim that that learning occurs only for a compound AB while elemental models assume that for a compound AB learning occurs for both elements A & B so the association is summed up.

184
Q

Instrumental conditioning is when an organism learns the association between two stimuli.
The term ‘operant’ refers to the fact that an organism learns through responding …

A

under the consideration of their own behaviour through operating on the environment

185
Q

When conditioning a dog to salvate, what is the UCS, UCR, CS and CR before, during and after conditioning?

A
186
Q

How does three-term contingency work?

A
187
Q

Who’s responsible for the developement of operant conditioning

A

Edward Thorndike 1898

188
Q

Thorndike’s study 1898

A

Hungry cat in a puzzle box Escape to eat if it operated a latch that opened the door First random behaviour Then accidental operation of door until it became a deliberate action <strong>learning by trial and accidental success</strong>

189
Q

Watson & Rainer 1920 (Aim, Method, Result, Importance)

A

Aim study the concept of classical conditioning, more specifically conditioned emotional responses on people (fear)

Method Albert initially did not display a fear of laboratory rats (9 months), producing a startled and fearful response to a loud noise made by banging a hammer on a metal bar (UCS that causes the UCR fear). Albert began to reach for a rat, the noise was made behind his head. Repeated → generalised fear of other white, furry objects paired the rat with the noise seven times in two sessions, one week apart.When the rat was presented on its own, Albert became distressed and avoided the rat. Five days later, Alben was exposed to a number of other objects such as familiar wooden blocks, a rabbit, a dog, a sealskin coat, white cotton, the heads of Watson and two assistants, a Santa Claus mask and a packet of cocoon wool

Result conditioned to fear rats in the absence to the noise

Important First experiment and successful attempt at conditioning fear in human first experiment in which fear was experimentally conditioned in a human being

190
Q

Watson on Consciousness

A

too subjective to lend itself to scientific investigation. Inner thoughts and psychodynamic processes don’t cause behaviour

191
Q

Watson’s definition of psychology? Psychology can be defined as…

A

the objective study of behaviour and the stimuli which produce such behaviour

192
Q

What should Psychology focus on according to Watson? On the

A

Exclusively limited to measurable explicit (seen by eye) and measurable implicit behaviours (using measurement technology, e.g. skin conductance, saliva)

193
Q

What would Skinner say about anxiety?

A

It stems from developmentally learned maladaptive responses. Physiological responses correlating to anxiety are due to a change in preparatory behaviour when presented with a stressful stimulus and not personality

194
Q

Darwian explanation for individual differences

A

Caused by feedback loops of genetic inheritance and situational determinats which were reinforced in the course of evolution. This means individual differences are due to genes.

195
Q

What is the claim of Maslow’s theory of human motivation

A

Humans aim to produce pleasant and to avoid painful events. Even private internal behaviour is not caused by emotions but said desire. Intentions are responses to internal stimuli.

196
Q

What are the limitations of classical conditioning (3)?

A
  1. too simplistic for more learning conditions because it’s only a stimulus followed by response
  2. doesn’t answer what happens after response
  3. Reinforcement?
197
Q

Explain the result of Skinner’s Operant Chamber

A

Result: learning occurs despite varied reinforcement schedules there is a lever of some sort that the animal in the course of exploring the box will press at some point. animal is rewarded with food. an electronic device attached to the lever to record the animal’s rate of pressing. after the bar pressing had resulted in the animal being reinforced with food, the rate at which the animal pressed the bar increased.

198
Q

Shaping means

A

reinforcing any behaviour that successively approximates the desired response ⇒ rewards only if it gradually aligns with the wished response i.e. the gradual association process.

199
Q

How and why does IR work against extinction

A

because not every situation constitutes to the reinforcement of a response so the varying ratio or interval doesn’t initially signal extinction

200
Q

How does contingency relate to excitatory or inhibitory learning?

A
  • Positive CS-UScontingency –> excitatory conditioning
  • Negative CS-UScontingency –> inhibitory learning.
201
Q

Contingency

A

the fact that the CS providesinformation about the US’s arrival

202
Q

The Rescorla-Wagner equation is:

A

ΔV = αβ(λ – ΣV)

203
Q

The Rescorla-Wagner equation is used to predict the

A

The Rescorla-Wagner model describes the rate of change in associative strength (between stimulusand outcome or response and outcome or stimulus and stimulus) through conditioning.This model focuses on error driven learning.

204
Q

Assumptions of Rescorla-Wagner error prediction model with regard tothe unconditioned stimulus (US)

A

The effectiveness of US depends on how different it is from what isexpected The amount of learning on a given trial is a function of the surprisevalue of the US (more surprise then more conditioning)

205
Q

What does ΔV mean?

A

change in associative strength (i.e., the strength of the association between the CS and the US)

206
Q

What does the α value represent

A

α is the salience of the CS, i.e., how much the CS grabs your attention. E.g., the salience of a brightflashing red light should be higher than the salience of a plain red square. With a strong CS, α shouldapproach 1, but with a weaker stimulus α should tend towards 0.

207
Q

What does β mean?

A

β is the salience or motivational value of the US, the outcome, e.g., the motivational value of chocolateas a US might be higher than the motivational value of lettuce as a US. The more we desire an outcome,the more we will learn about it.

208
Q

What does the λ mean?

A

λ is the outcome (the US). This is usually only 1 or 0 – 1 when the outcome or US is present, and 0 whenthe outcome or US is absent.

209
Q

What does ΣV mean?

A

ΣV is the sum of all the associative strengths of all the stimuli at the beginning of that trial.

210
Q

What is central to the Rescorla-Wagner prediction

A

role of surprise

211
Q

The strength of a Pavlovian conditioned response (CR) depends upon

A

the strengthof the connection between internal representations of the CS and the US… theassociative strength of the CS.

212
Q

Cue Competition: the principle of summation

A

This means that if two cues are trainedin compound, they will compete for associative strength with the pairedoutcome <img></img>

213
Q

Conditioned Inhibition

A

A conditioned inhibitor is a stimulus that predicts the absence of an outcome.

214
Q

How do you learn that a stimulus predicts the absence of an outcome?

A

This cannot be established simply by pairing a stimulus with no outcome, as that would just result in nolearning.

215
Q

Extinction Treatment

A

in a conditioned inhibition paradigm, remove the reward when the stimulus is presented after it’s trained

216
Q

What are the three strengths of the RW model?

A
  1. the equation allows qualitative predictions
  2. heuristic value for other associative learning theories
  3. helped with understanding numerous psychological processes
    | The model provides a good account of many of the facts of compound conditioning, BUT not all the effects associated with blocking and overshadowing are consistent with it. What are the strengths
217
Q

What are the limitations of the RW model?

A
  1. no adequate account for the role of surprise when blocking is considered
  2. no adequate account of extinction
  3. inappropriate account for discrimination
  4. inhibition is conceptualised as negative associative strength
218
Q

What’s Donald Hebb’s (1949) learning theory

A

When individual cells are activated at the same time, they establish connecting synapses or strengthen existing onesand thus become a functional unit. These are the structuralbases of memory.

219
Q

Synapse

A

specialised junction through which neural signals are transmitted from one neuron (the presynaptic neuron) to another (the postsynaptic neuron)

220
Q

Hebbian synapse

A

increase its effectiveness as a result of simultaneous activity in the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons. Such synapses are essential for many kinds of associative learning.

221
Q

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

main form of synaptic plasticity reflecting theactivity of synaptic information storage processes, and has been identified as the likelycellular correlate of learning and memory

222
Q

Explain the principle of LTP

A

One or more axons connected to a dendrite act as source for stimuli -> sudden and strong stimulation leaves some synapses depolarised/potentiated (more responsive to more stimuli) for varying amount of time

223
Q

What is associativity in long-term potentiation?

A

The response to axon 2 is initially weak. Briefly pairing it withrapid stimulation in axon 1 strongly depolarizes the dendrite.Afterward, the response to axon 2 (as well as axon 1) is enhanced.

224
Q

How does the biological basis relate to Pavlovian Conditioning?

A

This relates to learning, as previous experience has led to a long-term change inthe behaviour of the synapse, and it can be argued that this is related to surprise asthis is a result of a ‘burst of intense stimulation’ – a difference in what was expected(i.e. a prediction error).

225
Q

What did Schultz 2007 find on the role of dopamine in learning theory?

A

dopaminergic neurons exhibitburst activity, also known as ‘phasic activation,’following primary food and liquid rewards and conditioned visual, auditory, and somatosensory reward-predicting stimuli

226
Q

Does dopamine provides a biological signal for an error prediction, therefore providing a biologicalindication for surprise?

A

no dopamine activity to the CS, because lacking association with the reward outcome or US -> dopaminergic neurons shift towards CS after successive trials -> after dopamine reaction only to CS not to outcome/reward or US

227
Q

Absence of a reward following a blocked stimulus does not induce a neuronal response

A

When the light, the blocked predictor, was presented with no reward in the test stage, shown asblocking Group A in the table, they saw no dopamine activity Had an association been learnt between the noise and the light, we would expect to see increased dopamineactivity to the presentation of the light, and a depression of dopamine activity when no reward is presented . ➜ That this did not occur supports the findings of the blocking paradigm, as the prior learning about the noise atstage one ‘blocked’ the learning about the light at stage two, and this provides support for the role of dopamine insignalling prediction error.

228
Q

Neuronal activation following the delivery of a reward after a blocked stimulus

A

For blocking Group B, when a reward was presented after the light, there was dopamine activity to thereward. Had an association been learnt between the light and the reward, then we would have expected to see increased dopamine activity to the light, not the reward . ➜ That this did not occur supports the findings of the blocking paradigm, as the prior learning about the noise atstage one ‘blocked’ the learning about the light at stage two, and this provides support for the role of dopamine insignalling prediction error.

229
Q

What are the arguments against Schultz’s (2007) design supporting the claim that dopamine activity is signalling error prediction?

A
  1. no exact replication with punishment or aversive outcome
  2. Would dopamine still fire in the original experiment
230
Q

What are the arguments in favour of Schultz’s (2007) design supporting the claim that dopamine activity is signalling error prediction?

A
  1. the observed pattern does support the role of dopamine signalling prediction error
  2. prediction error regards learning in general and is not limited to learning about rewarding outcomes
231
Q

What key does Siegel 2016 outline in the relation between Pavlovian Conditioning, tolerance and addiction

A

Conditioned Compensatory Responses

232
Q

Siegel (2016) The Heroin Overdose Mystery two key points with Classical Conditioning

A

UR is NOT the effect of the drug, it is the bodily process that addresses the effect of the drug – the body’s RESPONSE CS all stimuli or contextual cues associated with the drug => illicits body’s indirect response

233
Q

What is the alpha response in the Heroin overdose mystery

A

a drug is the directresponse that the drug causes, i.e. a rush, depression of respiration.

234
Q

What’s the beta response in the Heroin overdose mystery

A

homeostatic counter-response that acts to diminish the direct effects of the drug. These homeostatic counter-responses are the responses that enter into conditioning.

235
Q

What is Tolerance and how is it accomplished

A

cues remainconstant prior to the drug arriving intothe body, the conditioned compensatoryresponse (beta response) bothdiminishes the body’s level of reactivity tothe drug – the drug is expected andprocessed more efficiently, thus its effectsare attenuated (less pleasure)

236
Q

How do you think cues associated with a drug could cause craving, as part of addiction?

A
  1. Cues = elicit a conditioned compensatory response.
  2. For example, cues associated with heroin will elicit the conditioned compensatory responses of “despair,” increased pain sensitivity and increased frequency of breathing (which can make individuals feel anxious).
  3. The conditioned compensatory responses are all highly aversive.
  4. In the presence of cues associated with a drug, an individual will experience the negative/aversive-conditioned compensatory responses, and may then be motivated to take the drug simply to alleviate them
237
Q

Critique of learning theory:

A

Fails to address the complexity of human behaviour, and too heavily based on animal studies.

238
Q

What is Behavioural Psychology?

A

Behaviour is learned• Individual difference in behaviour is the result of differentlearning experiences that people have had and thesituations in which they find themselves

239
Q

Research definition of learning:

A

“A long lasting change in behaviour that results fromexperience”

240
Q

Habituation is the simplest form of learning:

A

it is –learning NOT to respond to an unimportant event

241
Q

Explain Pavlovian Conditioning

A
242
Q

What does classical conditioning provide us with

A

a way to learn about cause-effect relations between environmental events

243
Q

What are two important factors in classical conditioning

A

Sequence and Timing

244
Q

Extinction

A

Present bell with no food following* ➜ reversal of conditioning process* ➜ extinction (association isundone)

245
Q

Acquisition of new knowledge depends on

A

Intensity of US -> rapidness of learning Timing -> Optimal: Presentation of the CS occurs shortly before the US

246
Q

Associative strength

A

The strength of the connection between internal representationsof the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus which determines the strength ofthe conditioned response (the Rescorla-Wagner model outlines this).

247
Q

Associability /conditionability

A

Theease with which the strength of a conditioned response to a stimulus can beincreased by subsequent conditioning.

248
Q

Error term

A

Difference betweenwhat you expected to happen and what actually happens

249
Q

Contiguity

A

The temporal and spatial(time & space) relationship between events can influence the strength ofassociation. (arriving at the same time)

250
Q

CS-UScontingency

A

Thedegree to which the US occurs during the presentation of the CS.

251
Q

What are positive, negative and zero contingency?

A
  • Positive: US is more likely present than the absent
  • Negative: US is more likely absent than the present
  • zero: US is equally likely during the presence and the absence of the CS.
252
Q

Blocking

A

Kamin’s (1969) blocking effect study demonstrates thatconditioning to a stimulus could be blocked if the stimulus were reinforced incompound with a previously conditioned stimulus. A+, AB+, B+ = blocked conditioning of B

253
Q

The summation principle

A

When the associative strength of individual stimuli are presentedtogether, the individual strengths are added together.

254
Q

Cue competition

A

If two cues are trained in compound, they will compete for associative strength with the paired outcome, so that if we train AB+, the strength of association that develops between A and the outcome, will be weaker than the association between stimulus and outcome if we trained C+.

255
Q

Overshadowing

A

The disruption of conditioning with one stimulus because of the presence of another stimulus. -> stronger conditioned stimulus will overshadow a weaker one

256
Q

Conditioned compensatory response:

A

The body usually tries to maintain a state of homeostasis. When people use drugs, the body and brain learn to counteract the effects of the drug upon presentation of conditioned stimuli (cues, e.g. needle) and respond to produce physiological reactions that are opposite to that of the drug (see Siegal paper)

257
Q

Acquisition

A

is demonstrated. At first, the word can by itself causes no special response. After repeated pairings of the word can and the water, the word by itself gradually becomes more likely to cause a CR.

258
Q

What are the Clinical applications of Classical Conditioning? (Assumption)

A

Psychopathology = learned maladaptiveresponse to a situationthat may have generalised to other situations orsimilar stimuli ➜ it could beunlearned (systematic desensitisation, aversion therapy)

259
Q

How does contingency relate to excitatory or inhibitory learning?

A
  • Positive CS-UScontingency –> excitatory conditioning
  • Negative CS-UScontingency –> inhibitory learning.
260
Q

What was the unconditioned stimulus in Siegel’s (2016) heroin overdose mystery?

A

heroin

261
Q

What was the conditioned stimulus in Siegel’s (2016) heroin overdose mystery?

A

all cues present at the time of heroin consumption

262
Q

What was the direct response to the heroin in Siegel’s (2016) heroin overdose mystery?

A

nothing. neither ur nor cr

263
Q

What was the unconditioned response in Siegel’s (2016) heroin overdose mystery?

A

the homeostatic counterreaction reducing the effect of the physiological changes brought on by heroin

264
Q

Stimulus generalisation

A

occurs when words that sound like can (e.g., cam, ban, ran, cap) lead to a CR.

265
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

occurs when different stimulus words produce differences in the CRs. In the demonstration, CRs are strongest and most likely to occur after the word can. They are weakest and least likely to occur after stimulus words that do not sound at all like can (e.g., dish, board, smoke).

266
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

has occurred after extinction when a long string of words in which can is not included is followed by the word can, and the word can again causes a CR. Such a string occurs near the end of the demonstration.

267
Q

Reconditioning savings

A

is demonstrated at the end of the list, where the word can and a squirt are again paired. At this point, fewer trials are needed to achieve strong, reliable CRs compared with the original acquisition at the beginning of the list.

268
Q

According to the dopamine hypothesis when should a spike in dopamine occur in the blocking paradigm

A

Immediately after the light and not after the reward to proof that there’s not learning

269
Q

Feature-positive discrimination

A

A discrimination inwhich an outcome isdelivered during acompound of twostimuli, but not duringone of the stimuliby itself.

270
Q

Negative patterning

A

A discrimination inwhich an outcome isdelivered during acompound of twostimuli, but not duringeither stimulusby itself.

271
Q

Configural cue

A

A hypothetical stimulus that is assumed to be created by presenting two stimuli together. Different pairs of stimuli are assumed to create different configural cues.

272
Q

Difference between configural and elemental models of discrimination learning?

A

Configural models claim that that learning occurs only for a compound AB while elemental models assume that for a compound AB learning occurs for both elements A & B so the association is summed up.

273
Q

Shaping means

A

reinforcing any behaviour that successively approximates the desired response ⇒ rewards only if it gradually aligns with the wished response i.e. the gradual association process.

274
Q

What is the Orienting Response?

A

The orienting response is usually prompted by novel stimuli and results in a subject investing their attention -> implication: vigour of response = attention

275
Q

How do OR and the R-W model relate?

A

Or show that CS conditionability does not only depend on the intensity of US but also or so the attention given to the stimuli

276
Q

Kaye and Pearce (1987)?

A
  • Two groups of rats were placed into a conditioning chamber containing a light bulb and a food dispenser.
  • For the first 12 sessions, nothing happened for Group Novel
  • For Group Familiar the bulb was illuminated for 10 seconds at a time at intervals in each session.
  • Both groups were then given a single pretest session in which the light was occasionally illuminated for 10 seconds.
  • Group novel was habituated, also had more intense ORs
  • Repeated exposure reduced attention paid to it, so group novel should learn more quickly than group familiar → latent inhibition (Lubow, 1973)
277
Q

What does latent inhibition not describe for three reasons?

A
  • Does not describe an interrupting in conditioning like conditioned inhibition
  • Conditioned inhibition = You need to condition the absence of the expected US
  • Latent inhibition can develop in the absence of an expected US
    latent inhibition disrupts conditioned inhibition
278
Q

What does latent inhibition describe?

A

When preexposure to a CS leads to reduced attention paid to the reduced effectiveness of paring the CS with the US

279
Q

What does SOP generally propose about latent inhibition and habituation in the case of retrieval-generated representations?

A

Depend on the context in which the stimulus was exposed
Exposure to the same stimuli in the same conditioning chamber is more disruptive there than in a different one

280
Q

Bond 1983 on stimuli significance

A

identification of food is difficult; pigeons attend selectively to the features of a single food type to facilitate its discovery (see also Dawkins, 1971a,b).

281
Q

How do IDS and EDS factor into discrimination?

A

claim that, during discrimination, animals learn to pay more attention to relevant than irrelevant stimuli

282
Q

What are IDS and EDS

A
  • IDS: (Intradimensional Shift) The selection of two stimuli for discrimination from a dimension that provided two stimuli for earlier discrimination.
  • EDS: Extradimensional Shift is the selection of two stimuli for a discrimination from a different dimension to one that provides two stimuli for an earlier discrimination.
283
Q

What does the SOP predict about habituation?

A

more likely to occur on the second presentation of a stimulus when the interval between the two presentations is short rather than long

284
Q

How do retrieval-generated representations matter in Best & Gemberling 1977?

A
  • Best & Gemberling 1977: preexposure trial may well have fostered the growth of a context-flavour association. This would then disrupt conditioning somewhat by ensuring that at least a component of the representation of the flavour was in the A2 state at the time of conditioning
285
Q

Peak Shift

A

Describes the shift of the peak at which generalisation occurs the most, usually away from inhibitory or other Stimuli and more into the direction of the presented Stimuli

286
Q

What is the role of attention in the Pearce–Hall (1980) model?

A

Two modes of attention (simultaneously)

  • Controlled: limited capacity + directed towards tasks that are novel or require conscious control. This type of attention is referred to as controlled or deliberate
  • Habitual: more automatic and directed towards tasks that are very well practiced and the performance of which is more or less habitual
287
Q

What are the challenges in Mackintosh’s account of blocking?

A

the surprising omission of one of a pair of shocks after each compound-conditioning trial was sufficient to disrupt blocking

288
Q

How do retrieval-generated representations matter in Whitlow 1975?

A
  • Whitlow 1975: response to a repeatedly presented tone was greater on the first than on subsequent sessions of testing. This relatively long-term effect was attributed to the growth of a context-tone association during the first session. Subsequent placement of the rabbits into the apparatus should then partially retrieve an A2 representation of the tone and make them less responsive to it whenever it occurred. Thus, the SOP model predicts that habituation is the result of the interaction of both short-term (self-generated) and long-term (retrieval-generated) processes.
289
Q

What are acquired equivalence and distinctiveness?

A

Reinforcement of stimuli that results in them either appearing more similar or distinct from each other because they have similar or different outcomes

290
Q

Blocking in Mackintosh’s terms?

A
  • conditioning with the added CS should be normal on the first compound trial.
  • only on later trials when the added CS is ignored that the effects of blocking become evident — need more trials to show an effect
  • Experiment showed little change in added cs after second compound conditioning
291
Q

What is learned irrelevance?

A

slower learning that takes place when a CS and US are paired if they have previously been presented randomly with respect to each other (Mackintosh, 1973)

292
Q

How is excitatory conditioning possible in the SOP?

A

simultaneous rehearsal of representations of the CS and the US while they are both in the Al state

293
Q

What was discrimination influenced by?

A

→ the similarity of the outcomes signalled by the stimuli
An improvement in the ease with which discrimination between two stimuli can be acquired as a result of prior exposure to the stimuli.

294
Q

What are the differences between Mackintosh and Pearce-Hall in experiment?

A
  • Latent inhibition should be possible in Pearce-Hall as long as the outcome is changed in intensity or its presentation increments = unreliable p.90 reread
  • Pearce-Hall’s (1980) theory predicts that it should be possible to obtain latent inhibition by repeatedly pairing the CS with the US, as well as repeatedly presenting it by itself.
  • Mackintosh: tone becomes the best predictor for us
295
Q

What are retrieval-generated representations?

A

A1 is excited by presenting a memory in correspondence with stimuli → When CS and US are both presented in A1 state and conditioning is complete, the CS will excite the memory of the US in the A2 state
So, it describes how CS indirectly cause the activation of an associated representation of a US in A2 state

296
Q

Explain feature-positive discrimination.

A

outcome is delivered during a compound of two stimuli but not during one of the stimuli by itself. (reversal of negative patterning)

297
Q

What is the role of surprise in learning, according to the Pearce–Hall (1980) model?

A

Animals need to attend to stimuli only when learning about them; controlled attention -> more automatic attention
Surprise determines to what degree attention will be paid and learning consequently occurs (pp. 86-87)

298
Q

What are the differences between elemental and configural theories of discrimination learning?

A
  • Elemental: Theories based on the assumption that during conditioning with a compound stimulus, each component of the compound can enter individually into an association with the US.
  • Configural: when two or more stimuli are presented together for conditioning, only a single association will develop (pp.152–6)
299
Q

What counterintuitive prediction does the RW make about discrimination?

A

That discrimination will be easier if two sets of stimuli are similar to each other (BC & ABC) than when they’re different (A & ABC)

300
Q

What is a configural cue?

A

Hypothetical stimulus X or QX that is part of the compound stimuli that takes on inhibitory properties compared to the CT properties exciting the prior response (p.153)

301
Q

Hanson, 1959

A

Peak response to the association between stimuli and outcome occurs not at the stimulus (S+) but further along a gradient away from the other stimulus (S-) that hasn’t been paired with the outcome
Yellow gradient, pigeons S+ 550 nanometers and S- 560 nanometers
→ peak shift at 540 nanometers and responses below

302
Q

What are two factors influencing discrimination?

A

Similarity between reward and nonreward.
whether subjects receive preexposure to the stimuli before the discrimination commences

303
Q

Honey and Bateson 1996

A

Two groups of chicks in a cool chamber were taught to approach a picture in whose direction was w arm stream of air
Group control only received that training G. experimental was preexposed to both images
Control group required more training to discriminate between the pictures

304
Q

What would happen if two similar stimuli were paired?

A
  • pairing two stimuli with the same outcome should make it difficult subsequently to solve discrimination between them.

*pairing two stimuli with different outcomes should have the opposite effect and facilitate discrimination

  • Perceptual Learning (Delamater 1998)
305
Q

What is ABC renewal?

A

conditioning, extinction, and testing respectively occur in Contexts A, B, and C (ABC renewal) and A, A, and B (AAB renewal)

306
Q

Mackintosh, Kaye, and Bennett (1991)

A

Both groups drink a solution containing saline and lemon before being injected with lithium chloride to induce an aversion to the compound.
Preexposure to the two compounds resulted in perceptual learning and allowed discrimination

307
Q

How does categorisation work in the classical view?

A
  • things belong to categories because they possess certain properties in common.
  • Possession of the common aspect is important for category membership
  • Possession of the common properties is sufficient for category membership
  • e.g. Bachelors (unmarried, adult, male) has multiple categories
308
Q

What is the consequence of the weak influence of ABC and AAB renewal?

A
  • Shows that conditioned responses can transfer onto new
309
Q

What is spontaneous recovery?

A

allowing time to elapse after extinction has occurred can allow the behaviour to at least partially return

310
Q

What is resurgence?

A

an organism first learns one operant response (e.g., pressing a lever in a Skinner box) and then, while that behaviour is being extinguished, a second “replacement” behaviour is reinforced (e.g., pressing a second lever in the box)

311
Q

What are the key findings of AAB and ABC renewal research?

A

You do not need to return to an original context for a conditioned behaviour to occur

312
Q
A
313
Q

What’s the key takeaway about categorisation

A

may not be a single process, and different kinds of categorization may lend themselves to different theoretical treatments.

314
Q

SEMANTIC KNOWLEDGE

A

Knowledge about objects and their properties, and of relationships between and among them, including knowledge of word meanings. General encyclopaedic knowledge is sometimes also included.

315
Q

TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY

A

A structured set of concepts linked together with class-inclusion relationships.

316
Q

How does taxonomic hierarchies relate to semantic dementia and semantic development

A

Children and dementia patients work in opposite directions one expanding on the superordinate concepts and the other losing the specific concepts

317
Q

Category

A

A set of objects in the world that can be grouped together

318
Q

Categorisation:

A

Process of placing concepts into groups called categories, based on their characteristic features

319
Q

Concept

A

A mental representation of a category, used for a variety of cognitive functions including memory, reasoning, and using language. A classical view is that concepts provide definitions of their corresponding category.

320
Q

What is similarity?

A

The degree to which features/elements of an object or stimulus ‘match’ one another (Braisby & Gellatly, 2012).

321
Q

What is typicality?

A

The degree to which an object or stimulus is the best or most representative example of a category or concept

322
Q

INTERNAL REPRESENTATION

A

In a PDP network , a pattern of activity that arises across a layerof hidden units. When a network is presented with a given input, the pattern of activity arising across its hidden layer is the internal representation of that input.

*See The Connectionist approach slides in Topic 7

323
Q

HIDDEN UNITS

A

Hidden and theoretical gateways between input and output that represent differentiated partterns of activation

324
Q

Parallel Distributing Processing (PDP) framework

A

the brain does not function in a series of activities but rather performs a range of activities at the same time, parallel to each other.

325
Q

propagation of activation

A

Semantic information is not stored as such but instead is reconstructed in response to probes in a process called pattern completion.

326
Q

What are the three major points of criticism for the classical view?

A
  1. concepts are definitions of categories are undermined by arguments that many categories cannot be defined and cannot readily explain typicality effects, borderline cases, and intransitivity
  2. People may categorise things in different ways according to their goals and the nature of their knowledge so as to fit the claims of different theories
  3. Different types of categories have different properties and so may require different theoretical treatments
327
Q

What is categorisation in the prototype view determined by?

A

similarity to the prototype, which also explains the typicality

328
Q

What are the concerns concerning the prototype view?

A
  • cannot explain the context-sensitivity of typicality
  • does not explain how prototypes might combine in complex concepts
  • the unsettled nature of whether the existence of typicality effects implies a prototype organization
329
Q

What is the theory-based view about?

A

can explain the non-independence of attributes in concepts and dissociations between categorization and similarity while offering an account for similarity

330
Q

What criticism of the theory-based view?

A

it is not clear how theories might combine complex concepts, and the notion of a theory is unspecified

331
Q

How does categorisation work in the classical view?

A
  • things belong to categories because they possess certain properties in common.
  • Possession of the common aspect is important for category membership
  • Possession of the common properties is sufficient for category membership
  • e.g. Bachelors (unmarried, adult, male) has multiple categories
332
Q

What is a GOE?

A

Goodness of exemplar
Typicality rating method

333
Q

What is exemplar theory?

A

concepts are instead representations of the individual members ( or exemplars) of the category that we have experienced

334
Q

What is the issue surrounding a lack of definitions (Wittgenstein, 1953)?

A
  • Categories seem to group common aspects together, but as a whole, on a specific level, you’ll find no truly common properties like in games
  • Categories are indefinable
335
Q

What does transivity mean?

A

Members of category A also belong to B, B → C = A → C

336
Q

How does the classical view relate to typicality (representativeness)?

A

All members must meet the definition criteria and be equal in their quality as members but there are systematic differences

337
Q

When does an item belong to a category?

A

As long as there is not a significant divergence between it and the prototype =similarity

338
Q

What is the prototype theory?

A

Born out of the limitations of the classical view and centres the best category member who acts as a representative

339
Q

What do McClelland and Rogers mean by the propagation of activation? (p.312)

A

Semantic information is not stored as such but is reconstructed in response to probes in a process called pattern completion. These patterns are activated if one tries to retrieve said knowledge, whereby the strength of these connections depends on experience. → Think Hebbian Synapses

340
Q

What are the key findings of AAB and ABC renewal research?

A

You do not need to return to an original context for a conditioned behaviour to occur

341
Q

What do typicality effects do?

A

Expose the insufficient differentiation between members but not contradict the classical view as a whole because it is all-or-nothing. There are no borderline cases that cannot be clearly distinguished (McCloskey & Glucksberg,1978)

342
Q

What approach did Quillian propose? (p.310)?

A
  • Concepts organised in a hierarchical order ranging from a general and encompassing superordinate to increasingly specific concepts
    → Propositions applicable to all members of a superordinate category could be stored only once, at the level of the superordinate category
343
Q

How does this aspect challenge the classical view?

A

It’s transitive, but peoples’ judgments aren’t consistent (Hampton, 1982 Is a car seat furniture?)

344
Q

What is the difference between prototype and classical theory?

A

Prototype theory allows a degree of mismatch of the qualities while classical theory doesn’t → level of matching = typicality

345
Q

What do Brooks et al. (1991) (skin disorder categorisation) and Allen and Brooks (1991) show (cartoon animal picture organisation)?

A

Exemplar so previous information is hard to ignore

346
Q

What’s typicality?

A

the degree to which an object or stimulus is the best or most representative example of a category or concept

347
Q

How is the parallel distributed processing (PDP) model trained? (p.313)

A

connections are initially set to small random values so that activations produced by a particular input are weak and undifferentiated. The network is trained by presenting it with experiences based on the information contained in Quillian’s hierarchy

348
Q

What is a hidden unit? (pp.313–14)

A

The hidden units are not anything physically ‘real’. The are abstract concepts that allow us to capture complex relationships. ➜ They act like gateways between input and output

349
Q

According to McClelland and Rogers, why do infants first develop basic-level (intermediate-level) descriptions? (p.317)

A
  • Parents use superordinate words more frequently than specific ones
  • The clustering of objects in the world into tight-knit intermediate-level groups within superordinate categories
  • the tendency for parents to use intermediate-level words more frequently than more general or more specific words when speaking to children; few items — such as dogs — are discussed far more frequently in such speech than are related items — such as other land animals, birds or fish
  • All this leads to more weighted connections and more robust networks
350
Q

What is the overestimate of high-density contingencies?

A

In control tasks, sometimes referred to as operant tasks (Dickinson et al., 1984), but also predictive tasks in which participants judge relationships between symptoms and diagnoses, participants have strong a priori expectations that events are associated

351
Q

What is coherent covariation? (p.318)

A

Consistent co-occurrence of a set of properties across different objects. The concept is distinct from simple correlation in that it generally refers to the co-occurrence of more than two properties. For example, having wings, having feathers, having hollow bones and being able to fly all consistently co-occur in birds.

352
Q

What was crucial to Msetfi and colleagues’ replication of Alloy and Abramson’s method?

A

Varied intertrial interval

353
Q

What is at the centre of casual learning?

A

used a contingency judgment task, establishing the contingency between an action and an outcome, that is, the extent to which the action has a causal relationship to the outcome

354
Q

What were their results for the long intertrial interval?

A

No action and no outcome, so the table above cell -> increased contingency because they overlap

355
Q

What do Kripke, Putnam and Pinker argue about cases in which a definition is found to be incompatible with an item?

A

Even if it failed the definition, it would remain in a category or be defined by the term it referred to (cats from Mars, lions who are lions)

356
Q

What is depressive realism?

A

Being depressed makes for realistic inferences as compared to when you’re not

357
Q

What is coherent covariation? (p.318)

A

Consistent co-occurrence of a set of properties across different objects. The concept is distinct from simple correlation in that it generally refers to the co-occurrence of more than two properties. For example, having wings, having feathers, having hollow bones and being able to fly all consistently co-occur in birds.

358
Q

What is learned helplessness?

A

a person has learnt to attribute their failures in situations to internal, stable and global (will be there in every aspect of their life and in all situations) factors

359
Q

What are contingency judgment tasks?

A

a participant is trying to work out whether the presence of one stimulus or outcome is contingent on another stimulus or action → causal relationship?

360
Q

Why is contingency judgment important?

A

People who can accurately judge when outcomes are contingent on their actions can control the occurrence of outcomes or avoid inappropriate behaviour

361
Q

Optimism and pessimism are

A

Habits of thinking that reveal personal explanatory style

362
Q

The core of optimism is

A

The formation of new beliefs or attitudes

363
Q

What is explanatory style (Seligman, 1991)?

A

way that you explain your problems and setbacks to yourself and choose either a positive or negative way to solve them

364
Q

Learned helplessness

A

state of affairs where you feel there is nothing you can do to affect what happens to you, and life is uncontrollable is at learned

365
Q

What are the components to learn about optimism (Seligman, 1991; 1998)?

A

adversity (A): challenge
beliefs (B): forming beliefs about adversity
consequences (C): of those beliefs

366
Q

Pessimism

A
  • When is optimism not an ideal way of thinking
  • Unrealistic plays into biases and heuristics
367
Q

What is distraction there for, and what do they allow for?

A
  • Distraction: putting aside the adversity and reevaluating the situation
  • Avoid the emotional issues and rumina and disassociate these emotions from the issue
368
Q

What are the four unrealistic strategies in false hope syndrome?

A
  1. Speed
  2. Ease
  3. Amount
  4. Reward
369
Q

What are Seligman (1991) two specific tactics to combat pessimism (or what he terms learned helplessness)?

A

Distraction
Disputation

370
Q

What is disputation there for and what do they allow for?

A

After distraction: challenging the emotions previously experienced about the adversity that caused feelings of overwhelmed

371
Q

What is dispositional optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985)?

A

as a person’s general predisposition to be optimistic in their mood or their temperament due to genes or personality and not due to learning

372
Q

What are the three key differences between dispositional and learned optimism?

A
  • DO expect either favourable/unfavourable vs. LO is used to explain future events being either positive or negative due to opt/pes
  • DO and DP, therefore, determine whether a person pursues their goals expecting either favourable or poor results and if they keep pursuing them or abandon them
373
Q

According to Scheier and Carver dispositional optimism affects

A

General mood or affective experience and are therefore stable traits that are displayed across periods of time

374
Q

How is dispositional optimism measured?

A

self-report questionnaire called the Life Orientation Test (LOT)
(Originally, four positively and negatively worded items
Later extended to filler items and three each)

375
Q

What are the two reactions we have to stress (Folkman, 1984; Lazarus et al., 1966)?

A
  1. primary or stress appraisals: to assess whether the stress is harmful or useful to us.
  2. secondary appraisals or coping strategies:assess whether the stress is harmful or useful to us.
376
Q

What are the three components of primary appraisals?

A
  1. Threat – stressful situation = harm the individual.
  2. Loss – stressful situation => loss for the person; for example, loss in friendships, health, self-esteem.
  3. Challenge – refers to seeing the stressful situation as having the potential for growth or benefits for the individual. (potential benefit)
377
Q

Which primary components trigger secondary appraisals?

A

Threat and loss

378
Q

Which seven aspects influence the appraisal of threats or losses (Ferguson et al., 1999)?

A
  • complexity
  • the individual’s values
  • commitments and goals
  • novelty of the situation
  • social support
  • intensity of the situation
  • perceived controllability of the potential threat or loss
379
Q

What are engaged and disengaged coping mechanisms, aka, emotion-focused and problem-focused coping mechanisms?

A
  • problem-focused coping strategies (sometimes called adaptive or direct coping) are logical coping strategies directed at resolving the stress changing some aspects of the environment and of the self
  • emotion-focused coping involves coping attempts that are not directed at the stressful event and instead are directed at decreasing emotional distress caused by the stressful event (Rice, 2000).
380
Q

What are emotional coping strategies?

A

wishful thinking, venting and expressing emotions, and seeking social support

381
Q

What is Situational optimism?

A

expectations that an individual generates for a particular situation concerning whether good rather than bad things will happen

382
Q

What’s the difference between dispositional and situational optimists?

A
  • dispositional optimists: more generalised positive beliefs about the future – they expect good things to happen within every aspect of their lives
  • situational optimists tend to have specific positive beliefs about certain events – they expect good things to happen within specific areas of their lives
383
Q

How is situational optimism measured?

A

assessing expectations about outcomes that are linked to particular contexts (or situations). - items vary from context to context

384
Q

How does Synder (1994) define hope?

A

an individual’s expectations that goals can be achieved.

385
Q

What are the two components of hope in addition to the goal?

A

Agency and pathways

386
Q

How are agency and pathways conceptualised in the context of hope?

A
  • agency: an individual’s determination that goals can be achieved
    individual’s beliefs that successful plans
  • pathways: strategies can be generated to reach goals
387
Q

How are goals defined by Snyder?

A

mental targets to ourselves that we feel we can achieve that differ in length and importance without any certainty

388
Q

How do low-hope and high-hope individuals differ?

A

low-hope individuals usually tend to have only one goal, high-hope about six accompanied by more clarity as they’re better at finding alternative pathways

389
Q

What are the three qualifiers of a high-hope person?

A
  1. many, clearly defined goals
  2. ability to come up with routes to these goals and this usually involves generating several different routes to achieve the goal (pathways).
  3. ability to motivate themselves in the pursuit of those goals (agency).
390
Q

The theory of hope is special because

A

It considers that people want to execute their goals

391
Q

What are the three forms of false hope?

A
  1. Expectancies that are based on illusions instead of reality
  2. Inappropriate goals
  3. Poor strategies to reach the desired goals.
392
Q

I see you frequently go near the biscuit tin, so I pay more attention to the biscuit tin.

A

stimulus enhancement

social

393
Q

I see you burn yourself on the iron so I realise that touching it has negative consequences.

A

observational conditioning

social

394
Q

Learning occurs by trying lots of options and seeing which works best, without watching or receiving instructions from another individual.

A

trial-and-error learning

asocial

395
Q

I learn how to cook a lasagna by calling a family member and asking for the recipe, which is given verbally or through a text.

A

learning from communication

asocial

396
Q

I notice you pressing your access card against a small rectangular panel to access the work building, so I learn that I need to press my card there too.

A

affordance learning

social

observer learns how objects work (the ‘affordances’ of the objects) by observing others’ interaction

397
Q

I see you kick a doll so it falls to the floor. I then punch a doll so that it falls to the floor.

A

emulation

social

copying the outcome of another’s person actions

398
Q

I use chopsticks in one hand to pick up some sushi; my companion takes one chopstick in each hand and tries to perform the same movements with the chopsticks but using very different actions.

A

object movement re-enactment

social

copying the movement of an object not necessarily the action itself

399
Q

I find, for the first time, that I can use a long item to pull my phone from under the bed, which I can’t reach with my hands. I do this without consulting anyone else.

A

innovation

asocial

400
Q

I improve my tennis serve through practice, not by observing experts.

A

individual learning

asocial

learning through gradual feedback from the outcome

401
Q

I watch a tennis match and copy the players’ precise actions to improve my own tennis serve.

A

imitation (social)

402
Q

An adult (teacher) demonstrates and instructs a child how to tie shoelaces.

A

learning from teaching

403
Q

Distinction directed and asocial

A

behaviour of others (not via observation) or input information coming in is intended to teach vs asocial learning means learning about something by oneself not based on what others do

404
Q

Why is learning via teaching asocial

A

You’re not directly learning through observation but through the deliberate instruction (communication) through others

405
Q

Heyes and colleagues experiment and its findings? 2005

A

Learning to imitate would have resulted in longer time needed to react

406
Q

What is a potential reasonfor social learning occurring?

A
  • Strategically useful (efficient shortcut for learning about or environment)
407
Q

What are the benefits of social learning (imitation)?

A
  • imitation> social glue improving relationships and evaluation of interactions
  • can lead to prosocial behaviour
408
Q

What is the purpose of an automatic imitation task?

A

Exploring the question of whether imitation is learned behaviour or inherited

409
Q

What does it make more sense to look at whether it can be taught not to imitate?

A
  • Because the reversed option is impractical
  • if we see some influences in terms of the principles of learning theory in this aspect of imitation, we can conclude that they play a role in learning to imitate
410
Q

Define social learning.

A

learning about other people or the inanimate world through the observation of, or interaction with, another individual or its products

411
Q

Explain asocial learning.

A

learning about other agents or the inanimate world that is not influenced by observation of, or interaction with, another individual or its products

412
Q

What do social and asocial learning have in common?

A
  • neither social learning nor asocial learning includes cases in which learning is mediated by language or other forms of symbolic communication.
    –> no teaching, signalling and communication
413
Q

What is the key argument in Heyes’s paper?

A

Considering cognitive processes distinguishing asocial and social learning to emerge, the input mechanisms are biased towards channels through which we administer social information

414
Q

How are social learning taxonomies behaviourist?

A

They focus on the resulting processes of neurocognitive mechanisms, i.e. the behaviour exhibited, instead of explaining said processes

415
Q

Intraspecific and Interspecific variations are

A

Variations in social and asocial learning can be accounted for with the hypotheses that the same mechanisms (intra) or distinct mechanisms evolving together (inter)

416
Q

How does imitation align with operant conditioning?

A

For example, as a visitor in your house, I might see you using your foot to close a particular cabinet door and then begin to use my foot to close that door. This would be R-S observational learning or goal-directed imitation if what I had learned from observing your behaviour was a relationship between a response (foot movement) and its outcome (door closing). It would be S-R observational learning, or blind imitation if what I had learned was a relationship between a stimulus (a distinctive feature of the door) and a response (foot movement)

417
Q

What is an automatic imitation task?

A
  • human participants are required to perform body movements in response to arbitrary stimuli, but the arbitrary stimuli are accompanied by photographic images of the body movements in the response set
  • Reaction time is an indicator of whether they’re imitating
418
Q

What is unconscious mimicry?

A

People unconsciously mimic body language eg → blind S-R imitation

419
Q

What are the two aspects of automatic imitation?

A
  1. Simple action replicated without intention
  2. Familiar action
420
Q

What are input mechanisms vs. learning mechanisms?

A

psychological input mechanisms supply the cognitive system with information that is encoded by learning mechanisms for long-term storage.

421
Q

What is ontogenetical specialisation in contrast to phylogenetical one?

A

Organisms being more attentive to social stimuli as a consequence of their prior experience with these stimuli

422
Q

What is the adaptive specialisation of input mechanisms?

A

evidence that highly social animals are superior to less social animals in a social learning task but not in a comparable asocial learning task

423
Q

What is meant by adaptive specialisation?

A

Social channels or any channels that through evolution, have become specialised to receive information from others (input mechanisms)

424
Q

Which personal factors were highlighted by Bandura?

A

Cognition, emotion, biology → significantly different from traditional learning theory and behaviourism

425
Q

What, according to Bandura, is at the core of behavioural change?

A

Social modelling and observational learning

426
Q

What are the key points of Templeton’s critique?

A

even if the learning (long-term encoding) was done by identical mechanisms, observer birds that were better able to see what the demonstrators were doing— by virtue of perceptual, attentional, or motivational biases—would show superior performance in the social, but not in the asocial, learning tasks

social and asocial learning tasks: birds were given an equal opportunity to learn how to remove the covers by trial and error— by manipulating the covers themselves. In the social tasks the birds had, in addition, an opportunity to obtain information about the covers and the food beneath by observing conspecifics removing the covers and consuming the food

427
Q

What is Bandura’s point about personal and proxy agency?

A
  • personal: the belief that you can change things to make them better for yourself or others
  • proxy: enlisting others to change one’s life but
428
Q

How do the downsides of proxy agency manifest and affect the collective?

A

in one’s passivity leading to collective agency (group enforces change)

429
Q

What is forethought?

A

Innately human ability to be aware of the consequences of our actions

430
Q

What are methods to manipulate self-efficacy?

A
  1. Exposure
  2. Performing
  3. Improving
  4. Vicarious experiences –> if they can, so can I
  5. Participant modelling
431
Q

Why is Bandura critical of global self-efficacy measurements?

A

Few people are confident about every aspect of their lives in terms of performance

432
Q

What is the role of reinforcement in observational learning?

A

Not necessary: noticing attention-grabbing adverts → purchasing the product later (self-reinforced behaviour: evaluating own behaviour)

433
Q

What is the incentive factor?

A

The motivation to learn is controlled by forethought and traditional learning cues → readiness to learn

434
Q

What strategies are important for children’s development when social modelling is not reinforced?

A

For goal achievement:
1. internal self-regulatory processes
2. self-criticism
3. self-praise
4. valuation of own personal standards
5. re-evaluation of own personal standards if necessary
6. self-persuasion, evaluation of attainment
7. acceptance of challenges

Psychology - Year 1 Weekly Flashcards (4 decks)

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