Pilot Studies, Observations, Self-Report, Correlations and Data Flashcards
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale version of an investigation which takes place before the real investigation to check that procedures work, allowing the researcher to make changes if necessary.
What is a single-blind procedure?
The participants are unaware of the true aims of the study or other details, so any information which may create expectations is not revealed until the end to control demand characteristics.
- Subject to investigator effects.
What is a double-blind procedure?
Neither the participants or researcher are aware of purpose - commissioned by 3rd party.
An important feature of drug trials where the investigator doesn’t know which are placebos.
Controls for investigator effects.
What is a naturalistic observation?
Watching and recorded behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur.
What is a controlled observation?
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment - one or more variables managed.
What is a covert and overt observation?
Covert - participants watched and recorded without knowledge or consent.
Over - participants watched and recorded with knowledge and consent.
What is a participant observation?
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording.
What is a non-participant observation?
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording.
What is a limitation that occurs in all observation techniques?
Observer bias - interpretation may be affected by their expectation. This can be reduced using multiple observers.
A limitation is that they cannot demonstrate causal relationships explicitly, though they can be inferred.
What is the evaluation of naturalistic observations?
+ High external validity because findings can be easily generalised.
- Lack of control makes replication difficult. May be uncontrolled variables that make judging behaviour difficult.
What is the evaluation of controlled observations?
+ CVs/EVs can be controlled for so replication is easier.
- May produce findings that cannot be applied to everyday life.
What is the evaluation of covert observations?
+ Removes demand characteristics and ensures any behaviour observed is natural. Increases internal validity.
- Ethics questioned as there is no consent or right to privacy.
What is the evaluation of overt observations?
+ No ethical issues as they are controlled for.
- Behaviour likely to change - demand characteristics or social desirability.
What is the evaluation of participant observations?
+ The researcher can experience the situation as participants do, increased insight = increased validity.
- May identify too strongly with the PPs and lose objectivity.
What is the evaluation of non-participant observations?
+ Allow the researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance from PPs.
- Loose valuable insight gained in an observation as too far removed from people and behaviour studied.
What is the difference between a structured and unstructured observation?
Unstructured - The researcher writes down everything they see. Rich in detail but there is often too much going on to all be recorded.
Structured - Using target behaviours and only recording that which is the main focus of the investigation.
What are behavioural categories in observations?
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable (operationalised).
What are sampling methods in observations?
Continuous recording - a feature of unstructured where everything is recorded as it happens and therefore every behaviour observed is recorded.
Event sampling - every time a target behaviour occurs it is recorded.
Time sampling - A target behaviour is recorded once in every fixed time frame, e.g. every 30 seconds.
What is the evaluation of structured observations?
+ Recording of data easier and more systematic.
+ Producing quantitive data so it can be analysed and compared.
- Limited - no qualitative data.
What is the evaluation of unstructured observations?
+ More richness and depth of detail due to qualitative data recorded.
- Observer bias - the researcher may only record behaviours that catch their eye.
- Inaccurate potentially - the researcher may miss important events by just not noticing them.
What is the conditions for behavioural categories?
They have to be observable, measurable and self-evident and previously agreed upon.
All possible forms of target behaviour are included, there should not be a ‘dustbin category’ where all behaviours are deposited.
Categories should be exclusive and not overlap.
What is the evaluation of event and time sampling?
Event useful when target behaviour happens infrequently and could be missed with time sampling. If event is too complex though, important details missed with event sampling.
Time useful in reducing umber of observations made.
Could be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole.
What is a self-report technique?
Any method in which a person is asked to state their own feelings, opinions, behaviours or experiences related to a given topic.
What is a questionnaire?
A set of written questions used to assess a persons thoughts or experiences. Often contains both open and closed questions.
What is the difference between open and closed questions?
Open - no limitations on how to answer - qualitative.
Closed - scale, rating, boolean or binomial scale - quantitative.
What is a strength of questionnaires?
Cost effective - gather lots of data quickly with easy distribution. Can be completed without a researcher present - low effort.
Data produced usually straightforward, particularly with closed-Q questionnaires. Can be used for statistical analysis.
What is a limitation of questionnaires?
Responses not always truthful - demand characteristics/social desirability bias.
Produce response bias - overly favouring one end of a scale.
What are the 3 kinds of interviews?
Structured - pre-determined question list in a pre-determined order.
Unstructured - free conversation with no pre-arranged conditions.
Semi-structured - pre-determined question list with freedom to elaborate or expand.
What is the evaluation of structured interviews?
+ Easily replicable due to standardised format and reduced differences between interviewers.
- Not possible for interviewers to deviate from the topic or explain their questions, limiting richness of data collected.
What is the evaluation of unstructured interviews?
+ More flexibility and follow-up points possible - can find unexpected information
- May lead to a risk of interviewer bias and analysis of data not straightforward.
- Risk of lying for social desirability.
What is a Likert scale?
Respondents indicate agreement on a scale, usually 5 point scale from strongly agree to disagree.
What is a Rating scale?
Similar to Likert but respondents identify a value indicating strength of feeling on a topic, e.g. enjoyment.
What is a fixed-choice option?
Includes a list of possible options and respondents required to indicate those applicable to them.
What are 4 things to avoid when writing good questions?
Overuse of jargon, emotive language, leading questions, double-barrelled questions and double negatives.
What should one consider when designing an interview?
A standardised schedule of questions to reduce interviewer bias.
Conducted in a quiet, private room so the candidate is honest.
Open with neutral questions to relax the candidate.
Reassure them of strict confidence referring to their data.
What is a strength of using correlations?
Provide precise, quantifiable measures of how 2 variables are related.
Suggests ideas for future research if variables are related.
Quick and easy to carry out with data analysis.
What is a limitation of using correlations?
Can tell us correlation but not causation - don’t have the information to tell which variable is causing change.
Could be an intervening variable causes the relationship.
Correlations can be misused or misinterpreted easily because you can’t draw causal conclusions.
What are the main aims of peer review?
To allocate research funding, to validate the quality and relevance of research, and to suggest amendments or improvements.
How is anonymity a strength of peer review?
The peer doing the reviewing remains anonymous to therefore remain objective however this may be used to get back at researchers they have a gripe with. Some journals do open-name reviewing to avoid this.
What is publication bias?
Editors want to publish significant headline-grabbing findings to increase credibility and circulation of a publication. They also prefer to publish positive results. This means that important research is ignored because it does not meet the requirements.
How can peer review bury groundbreaking research?
The peers are likely to be especially critical of research that contradicts their view and therefore research that challenges the status quo can often get buried.
