Physiology Potpourri Flashcards
1
Q
Cell
A
- each contains an identical complement of chromosomes
- Each chromosome is one long DNA molecule, and genes re functional regions of this DNA
2
Q
Chromosome
A
-Organized packages of DNA
3
Q
DNA
A
-Make up chromosomes
4
Q
Genes
A
-Functional regions of DNA - inheritance patterns; body processes that may affect genes
5
Q
Somatic cells
A
- In the body (23 pairs, 46 chromosomes)
- diploid: pairs
- Formed by mitosis
- Autosomes - homologous pairs
6
Q
Gametes
A
- Ovum and sperm - 23 chromosomes (haploid, single)
- formed by meiosis
7
Q
Chromosomes in a body
A
22 pairs of autosomes (homologous pairs, diploid); 1 par that are sex chromosomes (haploid)
-female xx, male xy
8
Q
Chemical structure of DNA
A
- double helix (shape)
- adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine
- paired together: A-T; C-G
9
Q
DNA replication
A
- Mitosis: growth, hyperplasia
- Helicase: unzipper
- Polymerase: add complimentary nucleotides (pairs)
- Mutations: pairs don’t match correctly –> not making correct proteins
10
Q
Central dogma
A
- genes direct the synthesis of proteins
- 2 part process:
1. transcription: mRNA is synthesized from single stranded DNA template
2. Translation: mRNA directs synthesis of proteins
11
Q
Transcription
A
- mRNA is synthesized from single stranded DNA template
- similar to replication - U replaces T
- RNA polymerase: enzyme pairs
12
Q
Translation
A
- Ribosomes: reading the sequence of nucleotides on mRNA
- tRNA: bring the amino acid to the ribosome
- Occurs in cytoplasm
- amino acids: building blocks
- Stop codon: done
13
Q
Proteins
A
- Offer structure: provide support for cells/cell membranes/cell walls; example: elastin, collagen
- Offer immunity (antibody): bind to specific foreign particles (viruses and bacteria) to help protect the body; example: immunoglobulin G
- Offer enzyme: carry out almost all of the chemical reactions that take place in cells. Assist with replication, transcription, and translation; example: polymerase
- Function as messengers/communication: transmit signals to coordinate biological processes; example: oxytocin, growth hormone, insulin
- Transport/Storage: bind and carry atoms and small molecules within cells and throughout the body; example: hemoglobin
14
Q
Modes of Cell signaling
A
- direct contact via receptors: contact dependent
- Signal protein moves from one cell to another via interstitial fluid: paracrine, neurotransmitter
- Signal protein moves from one cell to another via bloodstream: hormonal, neurohormonal (secreting cell is a nerve or neuron and then secretes into bloodstream)
- Autocrine: cell talking to itself
15
Q
Three major types of cell surface receptor proteins
A
Ion channel-linked receptor, Enzyme linked receptor, G protein linked receptor
16
Q
Ligand Gated ion channel
A
- ligand attaches to ion channel and says “open” and it let’s an ion go through
- ligand sends message to cell receptor in order to allow another ion to go in the cell
17
Q
G Protein couple receptor
A
- “second messenger”
- best example: opioid receptor
- Ligand binds to G protein receptor that then activates a G protein –> then it transforms GDP to GTP and then detaches from G protein receptor –> travels to adenylyl cyclase and acts as a second messenger –> regenerates and does it again
18
Q
Enzyme linked (receptor tyrosine kinase) receptor
A
Ligand connects both receptors, pulls together, then effects cell once pulled together (p proteins make the effects of the cell) second messenger
-insulin functions in this way; transmembrane, 2n messenger; growth hormone
19
Q
Signal Transduction
A
- Activate a receptor on the cell surface
- Activated cell surface receptor: relays the signal intracellularly, amplifies the signal, results in divergent intracellular responses
20
Q
Intracellular receptor
A
-Can act in cytoplasm, or can even go through the nuclear membrane and act directly in the nucleus
21
Q
W’s and H’s
A
Of Immunity and Inflammation - why where who what how, when
22
Q
Why do we care so much about inflammation?
A
- Infection
- Allergies
- Healing
- Maintains homeostasis
- Brings all needed fighters and healers to the site of injury
23
Q
Inflammation - why do we care?
A
-Root of: asthma, allergies, bronchitis, COPD, heart disease, IBD, brain and memory, cancer and tumor growth, joint pain
24
Q
Lines of Defense: first line
A
- First line: physical barriers
- innate, constant process, epithelial cells, not very specific response, no memory
- examples: skin and mucous membranes, cells and secretory molecules (mucous, saliva, tears, earwax), cilia, normal flora
25
Second line of defense
- second line: Inflammation
- general characteristics: non specific, in response to (and usually in proportion to degree of) injury; immediate response; not very specific; no memory
26
Third line of defense
- Third line: adaptive (acquired) immunity
- Characteristics: delayed response, very specific toward "antigen"; discriminatory & diverse; T and B lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells; specific memory
- Examples: antigens: infectious diseases, environmental substances;
- humoral (B cell) - antibodies that attack and activate compliment;
- Cell mediated (T cells) - activated t cells; are job specific
- immunizations; immunotherapy
27
Inflammation...
Prevents infection and further damage by microorganisms
- Self limiting through plasma protein systems
- Interacts with components of adaptive immune system so a more specific response can occur
- Prepares the area for healing
28
Inflammatory process - First step of inflammation process
- Increased vascular permeability: mast cells release (histamines - vasodilator, itching --> antihistamines; prostaglandins - pain, vasodilation, chemotaxis (calling chemicals) --> ibuprofen, NSAIDs, Tylenol, Aspirin leukotrienes - vasodilation, chemotaxis, leukotriene receptor antagonists)
- -> vasodilation
--> greater blood volume and hydrostatic pressure = pushes fluid into surrounding tissue
-Vasodilation and greater blood volume creates swelling, redness, warmth
29
Physical findings of inflammation
-Tissue damage --> release of vasoactive and chemotactic factors --> vasodilation, increased permeability, neutrophil emigrations --> pain, heat, redness, swelling and potential loss of function
5 CARDINAL SIGNS
30
Emigration of Leukocytes (second step of inflammation process)
- Margination: adherence; stick to wall capillary pavementing
- Emigration / diapedesis: movement through the capillary wall
- Chemotaxis: migrate to site
31
Phagocytosis - third step of inflammation
-Digestion
-By products - oxygen radicals which cause cell damage
-Pus: collection of dead neutrophils, bacteria, cellular debris
-Macrophages: cleaning
Steps: recognition and adherence, engulfment and formation of phagosome, fusion with lysosome to form phagolysosome, destruction and digestion
32
Plasma proteins systems as inflammatory mediators
-Compliment
-Kinins
-Coagulation/clotting
SERIES of reactions - sequential
33
Complement system / cascade
- Direct or indirect
- Activated by: classical pathway (antibodies), alternate pathway (infectious organisms), lectin pathway (other plasma proteins)
34
Complement activation results in:
1. chemotaxis: call - phagocytes attract
2. Opsonization: tagging - tell destroy me
3. Direct lysis of pathogens: destroy directly
4. Degranulation of mast cells: releases prost., histamines, leuko,; vascular perfusion
35
Coagulation/clotting system
-Activated by:
1. Extrinsic - tissue injury
2. Intrinsic - abnormal vessel wall & factor XII
3. Components of the kinin system
Responsible for: clot formation; migration of leukocytes; chemotaxis; increased permeability
36
Kinin System
- Works closely with coagulation and clotting
- Initiated by activation of Factor XII to factor XIIa
- Bradykinin: end product responsible for vasodilation, vascular permeability, pain
37
End products of ALL 3 SYSTEMS
1. Complement: chemotaxis, opsonization, direct destroy, degranulation mast cells
2. Clotting: clot, migration leukocyte, chemotaxis, increase permeability
3. Kinin: vasodilation, vascular permeability, pain
38
Cytokines and Chemokins
- Signaling molecules: cell communication
- Other names: monokinins, lymphokinins, interleukins, tumor necrosis factor
- Produced by macrophages and T helper cells
- Involved in communication; telling leukocytes what type of be and differentiation and stimulation
39
Leukocytes - Granulocytes
- Granulocytes:
1. neutrophils (police) - early responder, Polymorphonuclear leukocytes, phagocytosis, release toxins, bands are immature neutrophils
2. eosinophils (fumigators) - noted in allergic reactions and parasite infections; regulate inflammatory response
3. basophils- mast cell; pro inflammatory chemicals; allergic reactions; acute and chronic inflammation; wound healing (firefighters)
40
Mononucelar - Lymphocytes
| Monocytes
- B Cells (humoral): able to produce antibodies; have antibody like receptors on their surfaces
- T cells (Cell mediated): T 4 (CD4) cells "Helper" *HIV/AIDs; T 8 (CD8) cells, killer cells
- Natural Killer cells - innate immunity; non specific
4. Monocytes/macrophages: longer living; phagocytosis; secrete cytokines; present antigens to active T cells; clean up (riot police)
41
Systemic Manifestations of Inflammation
- Fever: cytokins - neutrophils and macrophage --> endogenous pyrogens
- Leukocytosis - increase in circulating WBCs
- Lab Changes: erythrocyte sedimentation rate --> liver proteins causes RCB aggregation; C reactive protein: opsonization - facilitate phago - increase CRP
