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Neuroscience > Physiology and pharmacology > Flashcards

Physiology and pharmacology Flashcards

1
Q

What are the four types of receptor

A

G - coupled receptor
Nuclear receptor
Ligand gated ion channel
Type 3 kinase receptors

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2
Q

What is an agonist for GABAaR

A

GABA, phenobarbitone

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3
Q

What is an antagonist for GABAaR

A

Picrotoxin

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4
Q

Is the Beta1 adrenoceptor inhibitory or excitatory

A

Excitatory

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5
Q

Is the Alpha 2 adrenoceptor inhibitory or excitatory

A

Inhibitory

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6
Q

What compound blocks the release of acetyl choline

A

Botulism

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7
Q

What type of nerve is the vagus nerve

A

Mixed nerve, cranial

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8
Q

List four targets of the vagus nerve

A

Liver, heart, lungs, tongue

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9
Q

What neurotransmitter is used at the vagal nerve endings

A

ACh

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10
Q

What effect is there from increase vagal output on the

  1. Heart rate
  2. Secretion from reproductive glands
  3. Most visceral blood vessels
  4. Bronchioles
  5. Sweat glands
A

Decreased, increased, vasodilation, constriction, none

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11
Q

What is the use of diazepam

A

A muscle relaxant

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12
Q

What is the use of cortisol hormone as a drug treatment

A

Reduces inflammation

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13
Q

How is the endocrine system co-ordinated

A

Hypothalamus secretes factors that act on the pituitary gland

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14
Q

What does the release of prolactin stimulate

A

Lactation

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15
Q

What does the release of growth hormone stimulate

A

chondrocytes in bone growth and uptake of amino acids

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16
Q

What are the differences between the two types of diabetes mellitus

A

Type 1 diabetes - Beta cells on the Islet of Langerhanns no longer present due to autoimmune disorder - leads to lack of insulin production and release - insulin no longer binds to peripheral cells to increase blood glucose absorption so blood glucose is high, but the body perceives it as being normal due to lack of beta cells so lipids and proteins are broken down further increasing blood glucose - causes excess glucose in urine (polyuria) and increased urinary output causing dehydration and fatigue etc

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17
Q

Type 2 diabetes?

A

Insulin levels are normal, however the peripheral cells don’t respond to it causing increased blood glucose levels

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18
Q

How is type 2 diabetes treated?

A

Metformin - Causes an increase of glucose uptake by muscles, reduces hepatic production of glucose,

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19
Q

What is Diabetes Insipidus

A

The posterior pituitary gland fails to produce ADH so excessive drinking and urination occurs

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20
Q

What does the thyroid hormone stimulate

A

protein synthesis, increased use of glucose and free fatty acids, increased lipolysis

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21
Q

What can too little thyroid stimulating hormone cause

A

Cretinism - Mentally immature - can’t hear or speak

bone growth retardation and sexually immature

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22
Q

What can too much thyroid stimulating hormone cause

A

Graves disease - Antibodies mimic TSH - pressure behind the eyes
Goiter - Usually attributed to low dietary intake of iodine

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23
Q

What makes up the intima of blood vessels

A

Basement membrane and epithelium

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24
Q

What makes up the media membrane

A

Elastic laminae or smooth muscular tissue

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25
Q

What makes up the adventitia (external)

A

Collagen, vaso vasorum (blood vessels for the larger blood vessels), Nerves, lymphatics

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26
Q

What is the aorta

A

Elastic artery where most the smooth muscle of the media layer has been replaced with concentric layers of elastic tissue

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27
Q

What is arteriosclerosis

A

Thickening and toughening of arterial walls, focal calcification leads to a rigid wall

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28
Q

What is atherosclerosis

A

Vessel wall infiltrated by immune cells and fatty deposits

Plaque deposits on the vessel wall reduces vessel volume

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29
Q

What is a characteristic of arterioles and venules

A

Often found running alongside each other

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30
Q

What body system do arterioles regulate and how

A

Blood pressure through the angiotensin system
Dehydration leads to decreased blood volume and pressure: Stimulates specialised cells in the glomerulus (macula densa) to produce renin - renin acts on angiotensinogen produced by the liver and cleaves part to form angiotensin I - Angiotensin converting enzyme produced by vascular endothelium (so mainly at the lungs) converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II which is the active form - This causes vasoconstriction increasing BP - also acts on the adrenal cortex causing production of aldosterone that causes salt and water reabsorption also increasing BP

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31
Q

What are ramipril and perindopril examples of

A

ACE inhibitors

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32
Q

What is a fenestrated capillary

A

Has gaps between its epithelial cells and very thin epithelia offering very little resistance

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33
Q

What vital role do capillaries have in the lymphatic system

A

Formation of tissue fluid

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34
Q

What are the different circuits of circulation

A

Systemic and pulmonary

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35
Q

What is in short term control of arterial BP

A

Baroreceptors
When mean arterial BP is low it causes increased sympathetic activity on the heart raising both rate and force of contraction of the heart increasing cardiac output
Also - increased sympathetic flow to blood vessels causes constriction increasing resistance in the vessels

36
Q

what is phenylephrine

A

Sympathetic agonist to alpha 1 receptors causing increased vasoconstriction

37
Q

What is dobutamine

A

A sympathetic agonist to beta 1 receptors causing increased cardiac output

38
Q

What is digitalis

A

A sodium potassium pump inhibitor that causes excess sodium to be swapped with calcium causing greater contraction of the heart

39
Q

What is prazosin

A

A sympathetic antagonist to alpha 1 receptors causing vasodilation

40
Q

What is atenolol

A

sympathetic antagonist to beta 1 receptors causing decreased cadiac output

41
Q

What is verapamil

A

A calcium channel blocker reducing force of muscle contraction

42
Q

What are three normal variations in BP caused by

A

exercise, sleep, time of the year

43
Q

What is an abnormal variation in BP caused by

A

Hyper or hypotension

44
Q

What are the zones of the lungs

A

1: the conducting zone - No gas exchange in the upper airways - from nose to bronchial tree - function is to filter incoming air and to warm and humidify it
2: the respiratory zone - An increased surface area around 100m2 aids for rapid gas exchange

45
Q

What three specialisations to epithelium of the lungs have

A

Ciliated - removal of bacteria
Goblet cells - produce mucous to catch bacteria
Sensory nerve endings - React to relevant stimulus to produce reflexes

46
Q

Describe the alveoli

A

A sandwich created by flattened cytoplasm of type 1 pneumocytes and the capillary wall creates multiple barriers that have to be crossed for gas exchange over as small a distance as possible - large surface area

47
Q

What is quiet inspiration

A

Only the primary muscles of inspiration involved (diaphragm and intercostal muscles) - diaphragm is pushed down to increase the thoracic and lung volume

48
Q

What is forced inspiration

A

Recruits in accessory muscles (neck and back muscles as well as upper respiratory tract muscles)

49
Q

What is quiet expiration

A

Passive process using elastic recoil, just the relaxation of the external intercostal muscles and recoil of the lungs

50
Q

What is forced expiration

A

Accessory muscles recruited (internal intercostal muscles, abdominal muscles and neck and back muscles)

51
Q

What is the pleura

A

A cavity filled with secretions lining the lungs preventing them from sticking to the chest wall - enables the free expansion and collapse of the lungs

52
Q

What is the importance of balancing chest and lung elastic forces at rest

A

Maintains that the interpleural space is at a lower pressure than that of the atmosphere

53
Q

What happens when a lung collapses

A

When the lung is punctured it releases air increasing the pressure within the pleural cavity causing the lung to collapse

54
Q

What is compliance and how can it be measured

A

A measure of elasticity and is the change in volume/the change in pressure

55
Q

What is low compliance

A

More work required to inspire - pulmonary fibrosis - lung parenchyma are more rigid

56
Q

What is high compliance

A

Often involves difficulty in expiring - Loss of elastic recoil - emphysema

57
Q

What is surface tension

A

The recoil due to tension generated at the air - fluid interface - The initial phase of inspiration is to overcome the surface tension to open the airways

58
Q

How do surfactants work

A

Decreases density of water molecules and has a hydrophobic tail that pulls the surfactant molecule upward so its vector is minimal

59
Q

Where is surfactant produced

A

Type two pneumocytes

60
Q

What controls are in place on bronchial smooth muscle

A

Parasympathetic - ACh released from the vagus nerve acts on muscarinic receptors leading to constriction
Sympathetic - Release of norepinephrine acts as a weak agonist leading to dilation (epinephrine is a better dilator)

61
Q

What two categories of lung disease are there

A

Obstructive - reduction in flow through airways and Restrictive - reduction in lung capacity (both reduce ventilation)

62
Q

Narrowing of airways could be due to?

A

Excess secretions, bronchoconstriction (Asthma) and inflammation

63
Q

What to obstructive lung diseases cause in an individuals FEV1 and flow volume loops and vital capacity

A

FEV1 is greatly reduced, the flow volume shows a reduction in flow rate and the vital capacity remains the same but takes longer to get to

64
Q

Examples of obstructive lung disease

A

Chronic bronchitis - excess mucous
Astchma - inflammatory disease
COPD - Structural changes due to inflammation
Emphysema - loss of elastin

65
Q

What is a treatment for asthma

A

Short acting B2 adrenoreceptor agonists salbutamol causes relaxation of smooth muscle - bronchodilation
Long acting - Glucocorticoids change gene expression reducing effect of inflammatory response

66
Q

What symptoms are there of restrictive lung diseases

A

VC is reduced, reduction in volume of air moved and potential reduction of peak flow

67
Q

What is asbestosis

A

Small particles build up in the alveoli - fibrous tissue builds up around the unremovable particles leading to loss of compliance

68
Q

How is the basic rhythm of respiration controlled

A

By centres in the medulla

69
Q

What groups are involved in the quiet inspiratory output

A

The dorsal respiratory group primarily for quiet inspiration

70
Q

What group is involved in forced inspiration

A

Ventral respiratory groups

71
Q

What controls the basic breathing pattern

A

The pre botzinger complex in the ventral respiratory group

72
Q

What groups are involved in forced expiration

A

The ventral respiratory group

73
Q

Why are no groups responsible for quiet expiration

A

Because it is passive and requires only elastic recoil

74
Q

What controls the depth of breath

A

How long the dorsal respiratory group fires action potentials for

75
Q

What two centres in the pons have respiratory functions

A

The pneumotaxic centre - increases the rate by shortening inspirations, inhibits the inspiratory centre and the apneustic centre - increases depth of breaths by stimulating the inspiratory centres

76
Q

What are the role of chemoreceptors

A

Central chemoreceptors detect pH and CO2 changes in the CSF, if raised so is ventilation
Peripheral chemoreceptors do the same in the blood at the aortic arch

77
Q

What occurs at the proximal tubule

A

Bulk reabsorption - 70% of both sodium and water, 100% of glucose and amino acids, 90% of carbonates for blood pH level regulation

78
Q

What protein channel is responsible for sodium and glucose cotransport

A

SGLT1 and SGLT2 - SGLT2 mutation leads to glycosuria

79
Q

What protein is responsible for sodium and phosphate co transport

A

NaPiII - knockout in mouse leads to bone density problems early on but older mice are able to compensate for the loss of phosphates in urine

80
Q

What protein is responsible for the movement of sodium in and hydrogen ions out into the lumen of the proximal tubule

A

NHE3 - uses the driving force of sodium in to pump H ions out against there concentration gradient - H ions then bind to carbonates formed at the glomerulus to form carbonic acid - carbonic anhydrase then causes CO2 and water formation which moves into the cell and they reform, H ions then dissacotiate and move back out whereas carbonates are reabsorbed into the blood stream for pH modulation

81
Q

What occurs in the thin descending limb of the loop of henle

A

Water reabsorption - not permeable to sodium or chloride

82
Q

What occurs in both the think and thin ascending limb of the loop of henle

A

Reabsorption of sodium and chloride ions

83
Q

What protein is responsible for sodium potassium and chloride reabsorption

A

NKCC2

84
Q

What protein channel allows chloride to be reabsorbed into the interstitial fluid

A

CLCK with the help of accessory protein Barttin

85
Q

How do loop diuretics work

A

Blocks NKCC2 leads to salt and water retention so greater urinary output leading to reduced BP

86
Q

What two cell types compose the late distal, connecting tubules and collecting duct

A

Principle - sodium and water reabsorption, potassium and H secretion
Intercalated - alpha and beta: H secretion and phosphate reabsorption - opposite

Neuroscience (4 decks)

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