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S2 E1 KCU COB > Physiology > Flashcards

Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

Where does the external ear start and end?

A

Starts at the pinna and ends at the tympanic membrane

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2
Q

Where does the middle ear start and end?

What does it contain?

A

Starts at the tympanic membrane and ends at the round and oval windows
Contains the mallus, incus, and stapes (MIS)

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3
Q

What is the membranous labyrinth and what does it contain?

A

It is contained within the bony labyrinth made of saclike, membranous ducts and sacs.

Cochlear duct within the cochlea, the utricle and saccule in the vestibule, and the semicircular ducts within the semicircular canals

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4
Q

What fluid is contained within the bony labyrinth?

A

Perilymph

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5
Q

What fluid is contained within the membranous labyrinth?

A

Endolymph that is similar to ICF and has a high potassium concentration

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6
Q

In sound transmission, what does wave amplitude signify?

A

Loudness

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7
Q

In sound transmission, what does wave frequency signify?

A

Pitch

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8
Q

How are sound vibrations transferred to the inner ear?

A

The stapes will be vibrating on the oval window. This wound transfer allows the amplification of sound pressure needed to move the liquid within the cochlea

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9
Q

When the stapes hits the oval window, where does the oval window bow into?

A

Bows into the scala vestibuli rhythmically

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10
Q

What is audible sound?

A

When there is movement from scala vestibuli to scala tympani through the basilar membrane

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11
Q

Where are the hairs required for hearing found?

A

In the organ of corti

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12
Q

What is released onto the sensory neurons in hearing?

A

Glutamate

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13
Q

Name the steps of hearing

A

First, bending of hairs open mechanically gated ion channels that allows potassium ions to enter from the ENDOLYMPH.
That allows it to depolarize and open the voltage-gated calcium ion channels.
Influx of calcium leads to bursts of releases of glutamate onto sensory neurons
Glutamate increases the AP production in sensory neurons into the cochlear branch of the vestibular cochlear nerve

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14
Q

Where and how are pitches determined?

A

High pitches resonate at higher frequencies at the oval window. Lower pitches resonate at lower frequencies near the apex

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15
Q

Neural pathways to the brain for hearing

A
  1. Fibers of sensory neurons synapse with interneurons in the brainstem.
  2. Sensory input from both ears converges on the same interneuron.
  3. Information goes to the colliculus of the midbrain.
  4. Signal is sent to the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus.
  5. They then all synapse with interneurons that carry information to the auditory cortex of the temporal lobe in the cerebrum
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16
Q

What is the plasma membrane of muscle cells?

A

Sarcolemma and attaches to tendons

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17
Q

What is the cytoplasm of the muscle cells?

A

Sarcoplasm

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18
Q

Composition of muscle fibers from large to small

A

Muscle – Fasciciuli – muscle fibers — myofibrils – Sarcomere – Myofilaments – Actin Filaments

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19
Q

What are the tails and heads of a myosin protein?

A

Tails are heavy chains (2). Heads are light chains (4)

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20
Q

Binding of troponins

A

TIC TAC: Troponin T = Tropomyosin;
Troponin I = Actin;
Troponin C = Calcium

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21
Q

Role of tropomyosin

A

Binds to actin and covers up active sites that would bind to myosin heads

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22
Q

Role of F-Actin

A

Binds to myosin heads and allow for contractions

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23
Q

What interdigitates with myosin

A

Actin

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24
Q

What are A bands composed of?

A

Myosin (Thick filaments)

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25
Q

What are I bands composed of?

A

Actin (Thin filaments)

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26
Q

What is the role of titin?

A

Maintains the alignment between actin and myosin filaments: It is the spring between z disc and myosin

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27
Q

What is the transmitter in the neuromuscular junction?

A

Ach

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28
Q

Where is Ach embedded in the neuron for skeletal muscles?

A

In the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell

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29
Q

What allows the release of Ach into the synaptic cleft?

A

Calcium allows the neuron to package and release Ach (5000) via exocytosis

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30
Q

Where do vesicles from the neuron bind to?

A

After traveling through the synaptic cleft, they bind to the sarcolemma

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31
Q

What prevents the Ach vesicles from reaching the sarcolemma?

A

Acetylcholinesterase

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32
Q

What is the curare poison?

A

Prevents calcium from entering the PREsynapic cleft. Neuron does not get calcium in order to package and release Ach

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33
Q

What allows the muscle cell to go through a graded potential?

A

Binding of two Ach will open up a cation gate. Mainly sodium is what rushes in

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34
Q

What is EPSP?

A

Excitatory Post-synaptic Potential or End Plate potential (EPP). The potential that happens after the synaptic cleft

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35
Q

What are T-Tubules?

A

When ATP Invaginations of the sarcolemma that is filled with ECF.
This allows the AP to run inward

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36
Q

When is a myosin head uncocked/sprung?

A

When ATP is bound (Not interacting with the actin filament) OR When phosphate leaves the ADP-Pi complex on the myosin head (Interacting with the actin filament. The release of the Pi is what slides the actin filament)

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37
Q

When is myosin cocked?

A

When ADP and phosphate are attached. (ATP was hydrolyzed. ADP and Pi are still attached to head. Myosin is not associated with actin filament)

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38
Q

How is a cocked myosin allowed to interact with the active site of the actin filament?

A

If troponin is attached to calcium, it pulls tropomyosin away from the active site and allows the myosin head to attach. This creates the cross bridge

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39
Q

What is one muscle fiber innervated by?

A

Only ONE motor neuron

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40
Q

What does one motor neuron innervate?

A

Multiple muscle fibers

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41
Q

What is a motor unit composed of?

A

One motor neuron and all the muscle fibers that are associated with it

42
Q

T/F Muscle fiber contraction can be summed?

A

True: Muscle summation increases the muscle tension by increasing the number of motor units contracting that the same time

43
Q

What is load?

A

The force exerted on a muscle by the weight of an object

44
Q

What happens when Tension > Load?

A

Fibers shorten

45
Q

What happens when tension < Load?

A

Fibers remain the same length

46
Q

What is tension?

A

The force exerted on an object by a muscle

47
Q

Isotonic Contractions

A

Muscles contract, but load stays the same

48
Q

Isometric contractions

A

Muscle creates tension, but does not contract

49
Q

Twitch

A

Contraction of a single muscle fiber in response to a single AP

50
Q

Frequency summation

A

Increased muscle tension that occurs when successive AP occur (Rapidly enough that the previous twitch has not yet relaxed)

51
Q

Treppe

A

Period of summation in which the strength of contraction increases as stimulation rises

52
Q

Unfused tetanus

A

Maintained contraction at high stimulation in which the muscle tension oscillates due to slight relaxations (Myoplasmic calcium fluctuates)

53
Q

Fused Tetanus

A

Tetanus maintained contraction at even higher stimulus with no oscillations of relaxations (Myoplasmic calcium stays high)

54
Q

What happens when the muscles are stretched too far?

A

There is no overlap of myosin or actin. No cross bridges can occur. Therefore, no sliding

55
Q

What creates maximum tension

A

When all myosin heads are attached to actin binding sites

56
Q

What happens when actin filaments overlap each other?

A

This prevents myosin heads binding: Less optimal tension

57
Q

What happens if the muscle fibers are shortened too much?

A

Z-lines collide and almost fall apart: Little to no tension

58
Q

What are smooth muscles innervated by?

A

ANS

59
Q

What are skeletal muscles innervated by?

A

CNS

60
Q

What cells are mononucleated and spindle shaped

A

Smooth Muscle

61
Q

What anchors the thin filaments to the cell membranes?

A

Dense bodies

62
Q

What allows a single unit to work in synchrony

A

Gap Junctions

63
Q

What activates single unit smooth muscles?

A

Nerves, Hormones, and Local factors

64
Q

Where can single unit smooth muscle be found?

A

Stomach, intestine, bile ducts, ureters, uterus, and blood vessels

65
Q

T/F Single unit muscle fibers can be induced into contraction by stretching

A

True: Multi unit smooth muscles do NOT, but single unit does

66
Q

In a multiple unit smooth muscle, what does contractility depend on?

A

How many fibers contract and how many signals it gets

67
Q

Where can multiple unit fibers be found

A

eyes, large airways, large arteries, and hairs of the skin

68
Q

Which smooth muscle units are richly innervated by the ANS?

A

Multiple units?

69
Q

Steps of muscle contractions in a smooth muscle

A
  1. calcium in the cell increases 2. calcium binds to calmodulin 3. calcium - calmodulin complex activates MLCK 4. MLCK uses ATP to phosphorylate both light chain heads on myosin 5. Myosin heads can now bind to actin
70
Q

How are smooth muscles relaxed?

A

Calcium pumps that remove it from the cytoplasm and phosphatases

71
Q

What are the regulators of smooth muscle contraction

A

Controlling calcium concentrations, transmitters from ANS, Hormones, local factors, stretch, and spontaneous electrical activity

72
Q

What can induce a slow wave of smooth muscles?

A

Stretch, ACh, and Parasympathetics

73
Q

What can induce hyperpolarization of smooth muscles

A

Norepinephrine and sympathetics

74
Q

Varicosities

A

Swollen regions of an axon that are full of Ach in the ANS neuron

75
Q

What hormones are produced by the kidney?

A

Renin, Erythropoietin, and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D

76
Q

What contains the glomerulus, bowman’s capsule, and bowman’s space?

A

Renal Corpuscle of the nephron

77
Q

What is the order of the tubule that branches from Bowman’s space?

A

Proximal tubule, Loop of Henley, Convoluted tubule, Collecting Ducts

78
Q

What is filtered through bowman’s capsule?

A

Water, glucose, urea, and ions

79
Q

Podocytes

A

foot processes On bowman’s capsule cells. Between the feet are slits

80
Q

What causes fluid to move from the glomerular pores and into Bowman’s space?

A

Fluid pressure (blood pressure)

81
Q

What are the opposing forces of filtration?

A

Fluid pressure from bowman’s space and the osmotic pressure created by the proteins in the capillary space

82
Q

Of the 900 L of plasma passing through the capillaries, how much is actually filtered?

A

180L/day

83
Q

What does constriction of the afferent capillary do?

A

It decreases the pressure for filtration

84
Q

What does constriction of the efferent capillary do?

A

It increases the pressure for filtration

85
Q

What would happen if we lost our ability to reabsorb?

A

Because globular filtration is huge, we would deplete our body of necessary molecules quickly

86
Q

T/F Glucose reabsorption is under physiological control

A

False. Glucose is always entirely reabsorbed

87
Q

How do substances move from the interstitial fluid to the peritubular capillaries?

A

Bulk flow: NOT active transport

88
Q

How is glucose reabsorbed?

A

Through carrier-mediated active transport. Creates a sodium gradient, sodium must be accompanied by glucose to be let back in via SGLT protein

89
Q

How is urea reabsorbed?

A

Reabsorption of water creates a concentration gradient that allows urea to come back into the body accidentally

90
Q

How are potassium, hydrogen, drugs, and organic compounds (creatinine) secreted?

A

Diffusion or carrier-mediated (Paired with sodium in counter transport)

91
Q

What happens when there is no secretion or reabsorption?

A

GFR=Clearance

92
Q

A blood test with high creatinine will indicate?

A

Kidney failure

93
Q

T/F Sodium and water are secreted

A

False. They are only filtered and reabsorbed

94
Q

Where is sodium and water reabsorption regulated?

A

In the distal tubules. The proximal tubules do not have any physiological control

95
Q

How is sodium reabsorption done?

A

Via active transport. Na/K pump creates a gradient it can move along;
Cotransport with glucose and amino acids;
countertransport with hydrogen

96
Q

As sodium transport occurs, what is happening to osmolarity?

A

Osmolarity of the tubules are decreased. Osmolarity of the interstial fluid is increased

97
Q

What does water cross in water reabsorption?

A

Proximal tubule is always permeable: through the tight junctions and cell membranes;
distal tubules are under physiological control with their amount of aquaporins

98
Q

Where is ADH/Vasopressin released from?

A

Posterior pituitary

99
Q

What are the effects of ADH on the distal tubules?

A

Causes insertions of aquaporins. Thus, increases reabsorption of water in the DISTAL tubules

100
Q

Diabetes Mellitus

A

When the blood glucose concentrations is so high that it prevents glucose from being reabsorbed and excreted through urine

101
Q

Diabetes Insipidus

A

When ADH is failing to be produced or is ignored. This leads to unwanted water excretion

102
Q

T/F if Sodium stays in the tubules, water is excreted at a higher volume

A

True: Water goes where sodium goes (it is what creates the gradient)

S2 E1 KCU COB (5 decks)

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