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physiology > physiology > Flashcards

physiology Flashcards

1
Q

what is a cell?

A

a functional and structural unit of life

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2
Q

what are the three basic parts of a human cell?

A

nucleus, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane

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3
Q

what are extracellular materials?

A

substances found outside of cell:
extracellular fluids (blood plasma, cerebrospinal fluid)
cellular secretions(mucus, saliva)
extracellular matrix(glue that holds cells together)

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4
Q

what is the plasma membrane?

A

acts as an active barrier that separates intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid.
phospholipids that form a flexible bilayer
controls what enters and leaves the cell

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5
Q

what are the structures of the plasma membrane?

A

fluid mosaic, glycocalyx
-membrane structures help to hold cells together through cell junctions

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6
Q

what are the 4 major functions of the plasma membrane

A

1.physical barrier
2.selective permeability
3.communication
4.cell recognition

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7
Q

what do phospholipids contain?

A

phosphate heads (hydrophilic)
fatty acid tails (hydrophobic)

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8
Q

what are the plasma membrane components?

A

glycolipids, cholesterol, and membrane proteins

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9
Q

what are integral proteins?and their functions?

A

-most are transmembrane proteins
-have both hydrophobic(embedded in membrane)and hydrophilic regions ( in the intra and extracellular space)
-functions as transport protein, enzymes, or receptors

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10
Q

what are peripheral proteins?functions?

A

-not embedded in membrane, loosely attached to the membrane or integral proteins
-include filaments on intracellular surface used for plasma membrane support
-functions as enzymes, motor proteins for shape during cell division and muscle contraction

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11
Q

how do membrane proteins function as transporters?

A

-the left protein spans across the membrane and provides a hydrophilic channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute
-the right transport proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump solute across the membrane

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12
Q

how do membrane proteins function as receptors?

A

-a membrane protein exposed to the outside of the cell may act as a binding site for specific chemical messenger(hormones)
-when bound the chemical messenger may cause a change in shape in the protein that initiates a chemical reaction in the cell

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13
Q

what are ligands?

A

molecules that bond to receptors (hormones, neurotransmitters, growth factors)
-binding of ligand leads to downstream signalling cascade

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14
Q

how do membrane proteins act as enzymes?

A

-a membrane protein may be an enzyme when its active site is exposed to substances in the adjacent solution
-a team of several enzymes in a membrane may catalyze sequential steps of a metabolic pathway

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15
Q

what are glycoproteins?

A

proteins bonded to short chains of sugars which help to make up the glycocalyx

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16
Q

how do cell proteins use cell-cell recognition?

A

some glycoproteins serve as identification tags that are specifically recognized by other cells

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17
Q

how do membrane proteins function in attachment to the cytoskeleton and ECM

A

-elements of the cytoskeleton and ECM may anchor to membrane proteins
-helps maintain cell shape, fixes the location of certain membrane proteins, and play a role in cell movement

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18
Q

how do membrane proteins function in cell-cell joining?

A

-membrane proteins of adjacent cells may be hooked together in various kinds of intracellular junctions
-some membrane proteins(cell adhesion molecules) of this group provide temporary binding sites that guide cell migration and other cell-cell interactions

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19
Q

what is the glycocalyx and its function?

A

-consists of sugars sticking out of cell surface
-attached to proteins and lipids (glycolipids and glycoproteins)
-every cell type has different patterns of sugar coating
-functions as specific biological markers for cell to cell recognition

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20
Q

what are cell junctions?

A

most cells are bound together to form tissues and organs

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21
Q

what are the three ways that cells can be bound together?

A

tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions

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22
Q

what are tight junctions?

A
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22
Q

what are tight junctions?

A

-integral proteins on adjacent cells fuse to form an impermeable junction that encircles whole cell
-prevent fluids and most molecules from moving inbetween cells (creates continuous seal around cell)

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23
Q

what are desmosomes?

A

-formed when linker proteins of neighboring cells interact with similar types of linker protein
-linker protein is anchored to its cell through thickened plaques
-keratin filaments anchor plaques internally

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24
Q

what are gap junctions?

A

-transmembrane proteins allow small molecules to move from cell to cell
-used to spread ions, simple sugars, or other small molecules between cells
-allows electrical signals to be passed quickly (used in cardiac and smooth muscle contractions)

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25
Q

what are the 2 types of membrane transfer?

A

passive processes:no energy required
active processes:energy(ATP)required

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26
Q

what are the two major types of passive transport?

A

diffusion an filtration

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27
Q

what is diffusion?

A

molecules move from high concentration to low concentration, down the concentration gradient

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28
Q

explain diffusion in cells?

A

very small, lipid soluble may freely pass through plasma membrane via passive diffusion

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29
Q

what is facilitated diffusion?

A

some molecules passed down the concentration gradient with assistance

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30
Q

what is carrier mediated diffusion?

A

-binding of molecule causes carrier to change shape, moving the molecule
-molecules still move down the concentration gradient
-carriers can become saturated

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31
Q

what is channel-mediated diffusion?

A

through a channel protein, mostly ions selected on basis of size and charge
two types:
leakage channels:open gates
gated channels:controlled by chemical or electrical signals

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32
Q

what is channel-mediated osmosis?

A

diffusion of a solvent such as water through a specific channel protein (aquaporin) or through the lipid bilayer

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33
Q

what is hydrostatic pressure

A

pressure of water inside cell pushing on membrane

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34
Q

what is osmotic pressure?

A

tendency of water to move into cells by osmosis;the more solutes inside a cell the higher the osmotic pressure

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35
Q

what is a isotonic solution?

A

cells retain their normal size and shape in isotonic solutions (same solute/water concentration as inside cells;still water moves in and out but the net movement equals zero because it is equal)

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36
Q

what is a hypertonic solution?

A

has higher osmolarity (more solutes) than inside the cell, water flows out of the cell

37
Q

what is a hypotonic solution?

A

has lower osmolarity (fewer solutes) than inside the cell, water flows into the cell, can cause cells to burst (lyses)

38
Q

what is secondary active transport?

A

-depends on the ion gradient that was created by primary active transport system
-energy used in gradient is indirectly used to drive transport of other solutes

39
Q

what is active transport?

A

-requires carrier proteins
-move solutes against their concentration gradient (move from low to high) requires ATP

40
Q

what is vesicular transport?

A

-second type of active transport membrane
-involves transport of large particles, macromolecules, and fluids across membrane in vesicles
-requires ATP

41
Q

what are peroxisomes?

A

membrane sacs containing detoxifying substances that neutralize toxins, such as free radicals (highly reactive molecules, by-products of metabolism
-they also play a role in breakdown and synthesis of fatty acids

42
Q

what are lysosomes?

A

membranous structures containing digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases)
-digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins
-degrade organelles
includes autophagy(cell digests itself)

43
Q

what are the functions of the endomembrane system?

A

-produce, degrade, store, and export biological molecules
-degrade potentially harmful substances

44
Q

what are the three types of cytoskeleton?

A

-microfilaments
-intermediate filaments
-microtubules

45
Q

what are microfilaments?

A

-strands made of spherical protein subunits called actin
-cross linked network attached to cytoplasmic side of plasma membrane
-strengthens cell surface
-involved in cell mobility, changes in cell shape, and exocytosis and endocytosis

46
Q

what are intermediate filaments?

A

-tough, insoluble protein fibers constructed like woven ropes composed of tetramer fibrils
-help cell resist pulling forces
-some have special names (neurofilaments in nerve cells/keratin filaments in skin)

47
Q

what are microtubules?

A

-hollow tubes composed of protein subunits called tubulins, constantly assembled and disassembled
-determine overall shape of cell and distribution of organelles
-microtubules act as tracks for motor proteins
-many organelles are tethered to microtubules

48
Q

what are motor proteins?

A

function in motility:
-movement in organelles and other substances around cells
-use microtubules as tracks to carry their cargo
-powered by ATP

49
Q

what are centrosomes?

A

located near the nucleus, “cell center”
-newly assembled microtubules radiate from centrosomes to the rest of the cell

50
Q

what are centrioles?

A

microtubule organizing center, consisting of centrioles
centrioles form the base of cilia and flagella

51
Q

what are the 3 structures of the nucleus

A

-nuclear envelope
-nucleolus
-chromatin

52
Q

what is the nuclear envelope?

A

-double membrane barrier that encloses the nucleoplasm
-surface of nuclear envelope is rough ER with ribosomes
-inner layer is a network of proteins that supports nuclear shape and holds DNA in
-nuclear pores allow substances to move in and out of the nucleus

53
Q

what is the nucleolus?

A

involved in ribosomal RNA synthesis and ribosome subunit assembly

54
Q

what is chromatin?

A

-arranged in fundamental units called nucleosomes
-chromosomes are condensed chromatin(helps protect during DNA division)

55
Q

what is the process from DNA to proteins?

A

-DNA is transcribed to RNA
-RNA is translated to proteins

56
Q

what is autophagy?

A

-self eating

57
Q

what are proteasomes?

A

unneeded proteins are marked by ubiquitins
-proteosomes disassemble ubiquitin tagged proteins and recycles amino acids and ubiquitin back into the body

58
Q

what is apoptosis?

A

-programmed cell death

59
Q

what is hyperplasia?

A

-is accelerated cell growth that increases cell numbers when needed

60
Q

what is atrophy?

A

is a decrease in size that results from lack of stimulation or use

61
Q

what are telomeres?

A

strings of nucleotides that protect ends of chromosomes , shorten when divide

62
Q

what is telomerase?

A

enzyme that lengthens telomeres after division

63
Q

what are the 3 main functions of blood?

A

-transport
-regulation
-protection

64
Q

how does the blood function with transport?

A

-delivers O2 and nutrients to body cells
-transporting CO2 and wastes to lungs and kidneys for elimination
-transporting hormones from endocrine to target organs

65
Q

how does the blood function with regulation?

A

maintains body temp, pH, and fluid volume

66
Q

how does the blood function with protection?

A

-preventing blood loss (platelets, and proteins initiate clotting)
-prevent infection (antibodies, blood cells, complement proteins)

67
Q

what type of connective tissue is found in blood?

A

plasma:non-living fluid matrix
formed elements:living blood cells
-leukocytes, erythrocytes, platelets

68
Q

what does hematocrit mean?

A

percentage of erythrocytes in blood volume

69
Q

what is plasma and what is it comprised of?

A

-straw colored sticky fluid
-over 100 dissolved solutes (nutrients, electrolytes, gases, hormones, proteins, etc)

70
Q

what is albumin?

A

-important carrier protein found in plasma
-maintains osmotic balance

71
Q

what are the characteristics of erythrocytes?

A

-concave shape, small diameter
-transport gas
-no mitochondria, no nucleus
-filled with hemoglobin
-contains spectrin (protein that maintains RBC shape)

72
Q

what is hemoglobin?

A

-binds reversibly with O2
-has two alpha and two beta chains (quaternary level)

73
Q

what is oxyhemoglobin?

A

produced when O2 is loaded into the lungs

74
Q

what is deoxyhemoglobin?

A

produced when O2 is unloaded into the tissue

75
Q

what is carbaminohemoglobin?

A

produced when CO2 in blood binds to Hb

76
Q

what is hematopoiesis?where does it occur?

A

-formation of all red blood cells
-occurs in red bone marrow

77
Q

what are hematopoietic stem cells?

A

hemocytoblasts:give rises to all formed elements
hematopoietic stem cells turn into RBCs

78
Q

what is hypoxia?

A

low levels of oxygen in body tissues

79
Q

what does erythropoietin do?

A

stimulates the formation of RBCs
-hypoxia inducible factor increases synthesis of EPO

80
Q

what are the causes of hypoxia?

A

-decreased RBCs due to hemorrhage, blood loss, or increased RBCs destruction
-insufficient hemoglobin per RBCs (iron deficiency)
-reduced availability of oxygen (high altitude or pneumonia)

81
Q

explain how erythrocytes are destructed

A

-old RBCs become weak and Hb begins to degenerate
-macrophages in spleen engulf and break down RBCs
-iron in RBC is stored for use
-heme is degraded to to bilirubin (leaves body in feces)
-globin is metabolized into amino acids and released back into the blood stream

82
Q

what are the three types of anemia?

A

-blood loss
-not enough RBCs produced
-too many RBCs being destroyed

83
Q

what is iron-deficiency anemia?

A

-not enough RBCs being produced
-low iron intake or decreased absorption
-RBCs produced are called microcytes

84
Q

what is pernicious anemia?

A

-destroys stomach mucosa that produces intrinsic factor(needed to absorb B12)
-without B12 RBCs become enlarged but cannot divide (macrocytes)
-can also be caused by low B12 intake

85
Q

what is hemolytic anemia and what is it caused by?

A

-premature lysis of RBCs
-caused by: incompatible transfusions or infections
-hemoglobin abnormalities
-sickle cell anemia

86
Q

what is sickle cell anemia?what is it caused by?

A

-mutated hemoglobin
-one amino acid residue is altered
-RBCs become crescent shaped when O2 levels are too low
-misshaped RBCs cause them to rupture and block small blood vessels

87
Q

what are the benefits of sickle cell anemia?

A

-people with sickle cell anemia cannot contract malaria

88
Q

what is polycythemia?

A

-abnormal excess of RBCs(increased blood viscosity causes sluggish blood flow)

89
Q

what is polycythemia vera?

A

bone marrow cancer leading to excess RBCs

90
Q

what is secondary polycythemia?

A

-caused by low O2 levels (high altitude)or increased EPO production

91
Q

what are leukocytes?

A

-white blood cells
-function in defense of disease

physiology (4 decks)

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