Physiology Flashcards
1
Q
What is a tissue?
A
A group of cells with similar structure and specialised function.
2
Q
What is an organ composed of?
A
Two or more types of primary tissues that function together to perform a particular function(s).
3
Q
What is a body system made up of?
A
A group of organs that perform related functions and work together to achieve a common goal(s).
4
Q
Normally, body systems work in ________ as a highly sophisticated _______ unit to maintain a healthy body.
A
- Harmony
- Integrated
5
Q
What does normal body function require ?
A
Coordination of function from molecular and cellular to whole body function.
6
Q
To maintain health, the human body must maintain optimum ___________ conditions.
A
physiological
7
Q
Define human physiology
A
Study of the normal functions of the human body and the integrative mechanisms that control them at the level of:
- the cells
- the tissues
- the organs
- the body systems
- the whole body
8
Q
Why is it important to undersatand physiology?
A
It is important to understand what is normal before we can understand abnormal.
Many more patients fall within normality.
Need to understand the deviations from normal.
9
Q
Why is a firm understanding of physiology and its clinical application essential?
A
- understanding of body functions in health and disease
- understanding of patient presentations
- planning and interpretation of patient investigations
- Planning patient management options
- providing health promotion and disease prevention advice
10
Q
Much of the physical control occurs at the level of the ____ ____________.
A
Cell membrane
11
Q
Give two reasons why the physiology of the cell membrane is important
A
- Change in cell membrane potential (or voltage across the membrane between inside and outside a cell) is central to the functionality of nerve and muscle cells.
- Many pharmaceutical agents act at the level of cell membrane to produce their therapeutic effect.
12
Q
Why are physiological control systems important?
A
They are important for the maintenance of stable internal environment within the body, called “homeostasis”.
13
Q
What are the 2 divisions of physiological control which work to achieve a desired response?
A
-
Intrinsic controls
* local controls that are inherent in an organ - Extrinsic controls
- regulatory mechanisms initiated outside an organ.
- Accomplished by nervous and endocrine systems.
14
Q
What are the two types of physiological control systems?
A
- Feedforward- term used for responses made in anticipation of a change.
- Feedback-refers to responses made after change has been detected.
15
Q
What are the two types of feedback systems?
A
- Positive feedback systems: amplifies an initial change e.g. increasing strength of uterine contraction until a baby is born.
- Negative feedback systems: opposes an initial change- MAIN TYPE OF PHYSIOLOGICAL CONTROL MECHANISMS
16
Q
Define homeostasis
A
Homeostasis is defined as “the maintenance of steady states within our bodies by coordinated physiological mechanisms”
Need for a constant, or near constant interntal environment is now well established and well known for the survival of the body cells and the body.
17
Q
To survive and stay healthy, several __________ within the internal environment of the human body must be tightly regulated within a _________ ________.
A
Variables
narrow range
18
Q
Why is it important to apply knowledge of homeostasis?
A
- One of the core concepts to understand human function in health and disease.
- Essential for the survival of body cells.
- Body cells and systems maintain homeostasis
- Many diseases are caused by deficient, inappropriate, or excessive homeostatic mechanisms.
- Disruption of homeostasis may result in disease or death.
19
Q
What is the primary type of homeostatic control mechanisms within the human body?
A
Negative feedback control mechanisms
20
Q
Do negative feedback systems amplify or oppose an initial change?
A
Oppose
21
Q
How do negative feedback systems promote stability?
A
By regulation of physiological varible (regulated variable) within a narrow range.
22
Q
In order to maintain homeostasis, what 3 things must a negative feedback control system be able to do?
A
- Sense deviations (sensor) from desired range in a regulated variable that needs to be kept within a narrow range (set point).
- Integrate this information with other relevant information (control centre).
- Make appropriate adjustments (Effector(s)) in order to restore regulated variable to its desired range set point.
23
Q
Define the term ‘set point’
A
Range of values/range of magnitude the system desires to keep the regulated variable at.
24
Q
What are the 7 steps in Negative feedback?
A
- Deviation in regulated variable (set point).
- Detected by sensor which informs….
- Control centre which sends instructions to…
- Effectors which bring about…
- Compensatory response which results in…
- Restoration of regulated variable to desired range.
- Negative feedback to shut off the system responsible for the response.
25
What is negative feedback?
A control mechanism where the action of the effector (response) opposes a change in the regulated variable and returns it back to toward the set point value.
26
Name 5 examples of variables regulated via negative feedback mechanisms...
1. Mean arterial blood pressure
2. core body temperature
3. blood glucose
4. blood gases (arterial Po2 and PCO2)
5. Blood H+ concentrtion (pH) (acid-base balance)
27
Homeostasis is the maintenance of ________ stable (near-constant) _______ environment within the body.
relatively
internal
28
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ feedback control mechanisms are the primary homeostatic mechanisms within the human body.
Negative
29
Negative feedback control mechanisms function to keep a ________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ relatively stable at a ___ \_\_\_\_\_\_ by opposing changes.
Regulated variable
Set point
30
What are the three components of a negative feedback control mechanism?
1. A sensor
2. A control centre
3. Effectors
31
Define blood pressure
The **outwards** (hydrostatic) **pressure** exerted by **the blood** on **blood vessel walls**.
32
How is blood pressure measured and expressed in clinical practice?
We often measure the **systemic arterial blood pressure** and express it as **"systolic"** and **"diastolic"** blood pressures.
33
Define systemic systolic arterial blood pressure
The pressure exerted by the blood on the walls of the aorta and systemic arteries **when the heart contracts**.
34
Define systemic diastolic arterial blood pressure
The pressure exerted by the blood on the walls of the aorta and systemic arteries **when the heart relaxes**.
35
Explain one way we can indirectly measure systemic arterial blood pressure?
Measuring the pressure in the brachial artery in the anti-cubital fossa using a stephascope and a sphygmomanometer.
36
Does the ideal normal arterial blood pressure remain the same between individuals or does it vary?
It varies
37
What is the range of ideal normal arterial blood pressure for adults below 80 years?
Varies between individuals from **120/80mmHg to 90/60 mmHg**
In this range, what is normal for one individual may be high or low for another.
38
Define hypertension
Clinical blood pressure of **140/90mmHg or higher** and **day time average of 135/85mmHg or higher.**
39
What is pulse pressure?
The difference beteween systolic and diastolic blood pressures
40
What is the normal range for pulse pressure?
**Between 30 and 50mmHg**
41
What is mean arterial blood pressure?
**Mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) is the average arterial blood pressure during a single cardiac cycle**, which involves contraction and relaxation of the heart.
42
Why is average arterial blood pressure (MAP) _not_ obtained by averaging systolic and diastolic pressures?
Because during a normal cardiac cycle the relaxation **(diastolic) portion** of the cardiac cycle is about **_twice_ as long as** the contraction **(systolic) portion** of the cardiac cycle.
43
What are the two formulas for calculating mean arterial blood pressure (MAP)?
1. MAP= **[(2xdiastolic) + systolic] divided by 3**
2. MAP= **DBP + 1/3 pulse pressure** (difference between SBP and DBP)
44
What is the normal range of mean arterial blood pressure (MAP)?
**70-105mmHg**
45
What is the mimimum MAP required to perfuse vital organs like brain, heart and kidneys?
**At least 60mmHg**
46
What happed if the MAP is not regulated and becomes too high?
It can **damage** the **blood vessels** or place an **extra strain** on the **heart** and **other organs** like the brain, kidneys and eyes.
47
What is the negative feedback control system used in the short term regulation of MAP?
Baroreceptor reflex
48
What are the sensors involved in the negative feedback system controlling MAP which send information to the control centre?
Baroreceptors
49
Where is the control centre located in the baroreceptor reflex which sends information to the effectors?
Cardiovascular control centre (**medulla**)
50
Which 2 effectors bring about a compensatory response in the baroreceptor negatvie feedback system?
1. **Heart** (varying heart rate and stroke volume)
2. **Blood vessels** (varying systemic vascular resistance)
51
Outline the 6 steps involved in the negative feedback system which regulates the MAP.
1. Deviation in the Mean arterial pressure
2. Detected by the baroreceptors
3. The cardiovascular control centre (Medulla) receives info from the baroreceptors and sends it to the effectors.
4. The Heart and blood vessels bring about a compensatory response by varying HR and SV and SVR.
5. This result in restoration of the MAP to the desired range.
6. Negative feedback to shut off the system responsible for the response.
52
What are baroreceptors?
Mechanoreceptors which are sensitive to stretch.
53
Where are baroreceptors located?
* The carotid sinus at the bifurcation of the common carotid artery into external and internal carotid artery
* Aortic arch
54
How do signals from the baroreceptors in the carotid sinus reach the medulla?
Via the glossopharyngeal nerve or the 9th cranial nerve
55
How do signals from the aortic baroreceptors reach the medulla?
Via the tenth cranial nerve or the vagus nerve
56
Does the firing rate in baroreceptors afferent neurons increase or decrease when the mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) increases?
Increases
57
The firing rate in baroreceptors in afferent neurons ___________ when the mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) decreases.
Decreases
58
What is the cardiovascular system in the medulla of the brainstem in charge of?
It modulates the activity of the autonomic nervous system- parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system.
59
What kind of information does the cardiovascular control centre receive?
CVS afferent information
60
What is the site of the 1st synapse for all CVS afferents in the medulla?
The **nucleus tractus solitarius** (NTS)
61
What does the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) do with information from the baroreceptors?
NTS relays information to other regions in the brain e.g. medulla, hypothalamus, cerebellum
62
What 2 things happen when the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) relays info to other regions of the brain?
1. **Generates vagal (parasypathetic) outflow to heart**- relay to nucleus ambiguus in the medulla.
2. **Regulates spinal sympathetic neurones**: supply includes **heart rate** and **blood vessels**.
63
Mean arterial pressure (MAP) = Cardiac output (CO) X ____________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Systemic vascular resistance (SVR)
64
How can you calculate the cardiac output?
Cardiac output= Stroke volume x Heart rate
CO= SV X HR
65
Define cardiac output
The volume of blood pumped by **each ventricle** of the heart **per minute**.
66
Define stroke volume
Stoke volume is the volume of blood pumped by **each ventricle** of the heart **per heart beat**.
67
How else can the MAP therefore be calculated using stroke volume, heart rate and systemic vascular resistance?
MAP = Stroke volume x Heart rate x Systemic vascular resistance
68
What is systemic vascular resistance?
The **sum of resistance** of **all** vasculature in the systemic circulation.
69
Mean arterial blood pressure can be regulated by regulating which three factors?
1. Heart rate
2. Stroke volume
3. Systemic vascular resistance
70
What is the heart?
An electrically controlled pump which sucks and pumps blood.
71
Where are the electrical signals which control the heart generated?
**Within the heart**
72
Define autorhythmicity
The heart is capable of beating rhythmitaclly in the **absence** of external stimuli.
73
What modifies the heart rate?
The autonomic (involuntary) nervous system (ANS)
74
What does the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system do? Which hormone and receptor is involved?
1. Stimulation **accelerates the heart rate (tachycardia)**
2. **noreadrenaline** (norepinephrine) acts on **ß1 receptors**
75
What does the parasympathetic division of the nervous system do? Which hormone and receptors are involved?
1. Stimulation of the vagus nerve (10th cranial nerve) **slows the heart rate (bradycardia)**
2. **Acetylcholine** acts on **muscarinic receptors**
76
Stroke Volume ________ if the contractile strength of the heart is increased.
Increases
77
Which nervous system regulates the stroke volume?
The autonomic nervous system.
78
Describe how the autonomic nervous system regulates the stroke volume
**Sympathetic** nerves innervate the ventricular myocardium, and **stimulation** increases the force of contraction and **increases stroke volume**.
79
Does the vagus (parasympathetic) nerve effect ventricular contraction?
Has little direct effect on ventricular contraction.
80
What is in charge of intrinsic controll of stroke volume in the heart?
The frank starling mechanism or the **Starling's law of the heart**
81
Which vessels are the major resistant vessels in systemic vascular resistance?
Arterioles
82
Does vasoconstriction increase or decrease systemic vascular resistance?
Increase
83
What regulates systemic vascular resistance?
Vascular smooth muscles
84
What are the consequences of contraction of vascular smooth muscles?
* Causes vasoconstriction
* Increases SVR and MAP (i.e. pressure upstream)
85
What are the consequences of relaxation of vascular smooth muscles?
* Vasodilation
* Decreases SVR and MAP
86
The vascular smooth muscles are supplied by __________ nerve fibres. The neurotransmitter is ____________ acting on __ receptors.
1. sympathetic
2. noreadrenaline
3. alpha
87
What is vasomotor tone?
Vascular smooth muscles are partially constricted at rest. This is called the vasomotor tone.
88
What causes vasomotor tone?
**Tonic**(continuous) **discharge of sympathetic nerves** resulting in **continuous release of noreadrenaline**.
89
How does increased sympathetic discharge impact the vasomotor tone and what are the consequences?
* **Increases** the vasomotor tone
* Results in **vasoconstriction** (**increase SVR** and **MAP**- pressure upstream)
90
How does decreased sympathetic discharge effect the vasomotor tone and what are the consequences of this?
* **Decreases** vasomotor tone
* Results in **vasodilation** (**decrease SVR** and **MAP**)
91
How are arterial smooth muscles impacted by the parasympathetic nervous system?
There is no significant parasympathetic innervation of arterial smooth muscles- exceptions are the penis and clitoris.
92
What does negative feedback do?
Acts to minimize any disturbances to a controlled variable e.g. mean arterial pressure
93
What is the only type of change in arterial blood pressure that baroreceptors respond to?
Acute changes
94
What happens to baroreceptor firing if high arterial blood pressure is sustained?
It decreases
95
What happens in relation to baroreceptors if high arterial blood pressure is sustained?
* Baroreceptors "**re-set**"- they will **fire again only if there is an acute change in MAP above the new** higher **steady state level**.
96
Baroreceptors _______ supply information about prevailing steady state arterial blood pressure.
Cannot
97
Define the respiratory rate
No. of breaths per minute
98
What do oxygen saturations refer to?
The extent the haemoglobin in the blood is saturated with oxygen.
99
What does AVPU stand for and what is it used for?
* A-alert
* V-response to voice
* P-response to pain
* U-unresponsibe
* Used for assessing the level of consciousness of a patient
100
What is the normal resting Pulse/heart rate for adults?
60-100 bpm
101
What else do we assess when checking the pulse?
* rhythm
* volume
* character
102
Name 7 commonly assessed clinical vital signs
1. pulse
2. blood pressure
3. respiratory rate
4. oxygen saturation
5. temperature
6. consciousness
7. capillary refill time
103
What is an adults normal resting respiratory rate?
12-20 breaths/min
104
What should normal oxygen saturations be?
96% or higher
105
What is the capillary refill time?
A measure of the time it takes for a distant capillary bed e.g. in a fingernail or toe nail to regain colour after pressure is applied to cause blanching.
106
What is the normal capillary refill time?
\< 2 seconds
107
The human body can be thought of as a ____ and an outer shell.
core
108
What does the outer shell of the body consist of?
Skin and subcutaneous tissue
109
What is the core body represented by?
The **structures deep within the body**
110
What is the "core body temperature"?
Temperature of the blood and internal organs.
111
The **core temperature** is **homeostatically maintained** in the structures deep within the body at about \_\_\_\_°C.
37.8
112
Why is skin temperature not a good site for monitoring body temperature?
It varies more widely than the core body temperature.
113
The core body temperature is kept almost _________ despite changes in the environment.
What is the narrow range it is kept within called?
* Constant
* **normothermia**
114
Normothermia is optimum for which two things?
Cellular function and metabolism
115
What happens to cellular metabolism when body temperature increases?
It increases
116
What happens when the body overheats?
Causes protein denaturation, nerve malfunction, convulsions and death.
117
What happens when body temperature decreases?
Slows down cellular metabolism and function, and can also be fatal.
118
Give 3 examples of indirect estimate of core body temperature
1. **infrared typanic (eardrum) thermometer**
2. infrared forehead
3. forehead strips
119
Typanic thermometers are commonly used in clinical practice. What is the normal range they should be detecting?
36ºC-37.5°C
120
Define an abnormally high core body temperature
38ºC or above
121
What temperature range defines fever?
38-40°C
122
Define hyperthermia
Core body temp above 40°C
123
What is abnormally low body temperature (hypothermia) defined as?
Below 35°C
124
Which peripheral sites should you avoid using to estimate core body temperature?
* oral/sublingual
* axilla
125
How can direct estimate of body temperature be acquired?
Rectal or Oesophageal: slightly higher than tympanic temperature. May become important at extremes of body temperature e.g. very low body temperature (hypothermia)
126
Does normal body temperature differ slightly in different individuals?
Yes
127
Body temperature varies slightly throughout the day in the same individual (lowest temp in the early morning). What is this called?
Diurnal variation
128
Which factors may alter body temperature?
* **activity**
* **exercise**
* **emotions**
* **exposure to extremes of temperature**
* varies slightly during **menstrual cycle** in menstruating females (**higher during the 2nd half** of the cycle from the time of ovulation)
129
To maintin a constant core body temperature the ____ \_\_\_\_\_ and ____ \_\_\_\_ must be in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
* heat gain
* heat loss
* balance
130
How can heat be gained from the internal and external environments?
_From internal environment_
* **metabolic heat gain**
_From External environment_
* **Radiation**
* convection
* conduction
131
Heat can only be lost to the external environment. What are four ways this can occur?
1. radiation
2. conduction
3. convection
4. exaporation
132
What happens with heat gain and heat loss if core body temperature is decreased?
Heat gain is increased
Heat loss is decreased
The opposite is true if core body temp increases
133
What is metabolic heat which leads to internal heat gain?
Oxidation of metabolic fuel derived from food in the body.
134
What is the basic metabolic rate (BMR)? What does this lead to?
* Minimum amount of energy required to sustain vital body functions.
* Leads to basic level of heat production.
135
The BMR can be increased by hormones, provide three examples.
1. adrenaline
2. noreadrenaline
3. thyroxine
136
How does muscle activity affect heat production?
Muscle activity increasing can increase metabolic heat production enormously.
shivering increases heat production by increasing muscle activity.
137
Define radiation
Emission of heat energy in the form of electromagnetic waves from a suface. Electromagnetic waves travel through the space and are transformed into heat on striking another surface.
138
The human body both ______ and ________ radiant heat.
* absorbs
* emits
139
Net heat transfer via radiation depends on what?
The relative temperature of body and surrounding objects (including the sun).
140
In humans, about half of the body's heat loss is through \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Radiation
141
What is conduction?
Transfer of heat between objects in contact
142
In conduction does heat move from cooler to hotter objects?
No, it moves from warmer to cooler objects.
143
What 2 factors does heat conduction depend on?
* temperature gradient
* thermal conductivity (e.g. water is a better thermal conductor than air).
144
In humans does a large or small percentage of total heat exchange take place through conduction alone?
A small percentage
145
What is convection?
Transfer of heat energy by air (or water) currents that help to carry the heat away from the body.
146
What happens when convection combines with conduction?
Dissipates heat from the body
147
What is the impact of forced air movement across the body surface (caused by e.g. wind or a fan) on the combined effect of conduction-convection?
It increases the combined effect
148
What is the impact of air trapping clothes on convection?
Reduces convection
149
Explain the role of evaporation in cooling the body
**Energy** is required to **convert water** in the **skin surface** and the **lining of the respiratory airways** into **vapour**. This **energy** comes from the body resulting in **evaporative heat loss** and hence **cooling of the body**.
150
**Passive evaporative heat loss** occurs continuously- explain how this happens
Water molecules continuously **passively** diffuse from the surface of the **skin** and the **linings of the respiratory airways**.
151
Sweating is an ________ evaporative heat loss process controlled by the ___________ nervous system.
* active
* sympathetic
152
**Relative humidity** of the atmosphere **affects** the extent of evaporation and hence **evaporative heat loss**. Is this true or false?
True
153
To maintain a constant core body temperature the heat gain and heat loss must be what?
In balance
154
How does the human body maintain its core temperature at a set point?
The human body maintains its core temperature at a set point by homeostatic mechanisms involving a **negative feedback control system**.
155
What does negative feedback do in relation to body temperature?
Tends to cancel out any disturbance to core body temperature.
156
What are the sensors in the negative feedback mechanism for temperature control and where are they located?
* **central thermoreceptors** (in hypothalamus, abdominal organs, elsewhere)
* **peripheral thermoreceptors** (in skin)
157
Where is the control centre located for the negative control mechanism for temperature control?
In the hypothalamus, contains the body thermostat and is where set point is determined.
158
What are the effectors involved in the negative feedback control system of temperature control?
* Skeletal muscles
* skin arterioles
* sweat glands
159
The hypothalamus (small area in the brain) has a variety of neural and ________ inputs and outputs.
hormonal
160
The neural inputs to the hypothalamus include those from the __________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ receptors for temperature regulation.
Negative feedback
161
The hypothalamus acts as the body's ____________ (maintains the temperature at a set poin).
Thermostat
162
What temperature is the posterior hypothalamic centre activated by?
cold
163
What temperature is the anterior hypothalamic centre activated by?
warmth
164
Give 3 examples of neural connections of the hypothalamus
* Limbic system & cerebral cortex
* motor neurons which control skeletal muscles
* sympathetic nervous system
165
Describe the coordinated effector response when the posterior hypothalamic centre is activated by cold.
* Skin arterioles **vasoconstrict** (contraction of the arterioles' smooth muscle)- blood flow to the skin surface is reduced- heat conservation (**decreased heat los**s).
* skeletal muscles- **increased muscle tone** via **shivering**, increased voluntary movement (behavioural)- lead to **increased head production**
other behavioural changes which **decrease heat loss** include postural changes (reduce exposed surface area) and warm clothing.
166
Describe the coordinated effector response when the anterior hypothalamic centre is activated by warmth
* skin arterioles **vasodilate** (relaxation of the arterioles' smooth muscles)-blood flow to the skin surface is increased (**increased heat loss**).
* sweat glands- sweating, **ev****aporation of sweat increases heat loss**
* Skeletal muscles- **Decreased muscle tone**, decreased voluntary movement (behavioural), both lead to **decreased heat production**
Other behavioural adaptations include cool clothing to increase heat loss.
167
Describe how the the temperature set point changes during fever
* infection or inflammation
* release of endogenous pyrogens (from macrophages)
* stimulate the release of prostaglandins in the hypothalamus
* raise the temp. set point in the hypothalamus
* initiation of "cold response"
* increase heat production and decrease heat loss
* Raise body temp. to new set point = fever
168
What do endogenous pyrogens do?
Stimulate the release of prostaglandins in the hypothalmus.
169
What do prosteglandins do?
Act on the hypothalamic thermo-regulatotry centre to "reset" the thermostat at a higher temperature.
170
Where do endogenous pyrogens come from?
**Chemicals** released from **macrophages** (certain type of phagocytic white blood cells) in response to infection or inflammation act as **endogenous pyrogens**.
171
How does the hypothalamus respond to the prostaglandins acting on it to reset the thermostat?
**Initiates mechanisms to heat the body**"cold response" (e.g. **shivering** and **skin vasoconstriction**) to raise the body temperature to the new set point.
172
How does fever result when the hypothalamus initiates mechanisms to heat the body following prostaglandins acting on it?
The body temp then increases to reach the new set point resulting in "fever".
173
What happens if the pyrogen release is reduced/stopped or the prostaglandins synthesis is decreased/ceased?
The hypothalamatic set point would be restored to normal.
The hypothalamus then initiates the mechanisms to cool the body "hot response" (e.g. sweating and skin vasodilatation) to reduce the body temperature to the normal hypothalamic set point.
174
Why might pyrogen release be reduced or stopped or prostaglandin synthesis decreased/ceased?
* body fight cause/cause treated
* body fight cause/antipyretics
175
The body maintains its **core temperature** at a **set point** through _____________ **mechanisms** involving a _________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ system.
* **homeostatic**
* **negative feedback**
176
If the temperature set point is raised to a new higher level, what does this result in?
Fever
177
What is the temperature that determines fever?
38-40°C
178
Extreme uncontrolled increase in body temperature (elevation of body temperature beyond accepted range due to failure of heat regulating mechanisms) is known as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Hyperthermia
179
What temperature constitutes hyperthermia?
Temperature above 40ºC
180
A drop in temperature below that required for cellular metabolism and function is known as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
hypothermia
181
What temperatures constitute hypothermia?
Temperature at or below 35°C
182
