Anatomy Flashcards
What does it mean if a patient is supine?
They are lying on their back
What does it mean if a patient is prone?
They are lying on their front
Describe the anatomical position
Patient is Standing
Patient is facing anteriorly/forwards (towards you)
Face and eyes looking anteriorly
upper limbs by side
palms of hands facing anteriorly
feet together
toes pointing anteriorly
Define a median (sagittal) plane
The median plane also called a mid-sagittal plane is a sagittal(vertical) plane that bisects the body vertically through the midline marked by the navel, dividing the body exactly in left and right side.
Define a coronal plane
A vertical plane which divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
Define an axial(transverse) plane
A horizontal plane which divides the body into superior and inferior parts
When talking about a patient do you use your own right and left if you are facing them or theirs
Theirs
Define anterior
nearer to the front of the body
Define posterior
nearer to the back of the body
Why would a surgeon mark the correct side of a patient with an arrow before the patient is transferred to the operating theatre?
To prevent a right/left error
Define superior or cranial/rostral
Nearer to the top of the head
Define inferior or caudal
Nearer to the soles of the feet
Define medial
Nearer to the midline/median plane
Define lateral
Further from the midline/median plane
Define proximal
Nearer to the attachment of the limb to the body
Define distal
Further from the attachment of the limb to the body
How can the terms proximal and distal be applied to arteries?
Proximal part of the artery is where it originates, the distal part of the artery is where it terminates
Define superficial
Nearer to the surface of the body
Define deep
Further from the surface of the body
Define external
further from the centre of the body or organ
Define internal
Nearer to the centre of a body or organ
Define dorsal in relation to the wrist, hand, tongue and foot
posterior surface of the wrist
posterior surface of the hand
posterior surface of the tongue
superior surface of the foot
What is the opposite to the dorsal surface of the wrist?
Volar, the anterior surface of the wrist
What is the opposite to the dorsal surface of the hand?
Palmar, the anterior surface of the hand
What is the opposite to the dorsal surface of the tongue?
Ventral, anterior surface of the tongue
What is the opposite of the dorsal surface of the foot?
Plantar, the inferior surface of the foot
Define the anatomical terms major and minor
Relatively larger and smaller structures with the same names
What does it mean if a structure is midline?
Single structure located at (or near) the midline/median plane
What does it mean if a structure is unilateral?
Structure is normally found only on one side of the body
what does it mean if a structure is bilateral?
Normally paired structures, a right and a left structure.
What does it mean if a structure is ipsilateral in relation to another structure?
Structure lies on the same side of the body as the other structure or location it is being compared to
What does it mean if a structure is contralateral in relation to another structure?
Structure lies on the opposite of the body to the other structure or location it is being compared to.
Provide 4 examples of combined anatomical terms
4 of….
superolateral; superomedial
inferolateral; inferomedial
anteroinferior; anterosuperior
anterolateral; posterolateral
What is flexion?
Decreasing the angle between the bones at a joint.
What is extension?
Increasing the angle between the bones at a joint.
Define abduction
movement away from the median plane
Define adduction
movement towards the median plane
What is internal/medial rotation?
Anterior surface of a limb rotates towards the median plane
What is external/lateral rotation?
Anterior surface of a limb rotates away from the median plane
Define circumduction
Circular motion at a joint
How would you describe all movements at a joint superior to the knee joint?… neck, back, shoulder, elbow, wrist, finger, hips
Flexion
How would you describe all anterior movements inferior to the knee joints?… Knee, ankle, toes
Extension
What is eversion of the foot?
The sole of the foot rotates away from the median plane such that the sole faces laterally
What is inversion of the foot?
The sole of the foot rotates towards the median plane such that the sole faces medially.
What is pronation of the forearm?
Anterior surface of the forearm rotates such that the palm of the hand faces posteriorly.
What is supination of the forearm?
The forearm rotates from the pronated position back into the anatomical position.
What orientation is the forearm in in anatomical position?
supinated
What is the orientation of the forearm and hand when halfway between supinated and pronated and facing medially e.g. when you lift a cup
semi-prone
What is the name given to the movement of bringing the thumb to touch another digit?
Opposition
What is the movement which brings the thumb back from opposition to anatomical position?
Reposition
How would you describe flexion and extension of the digits?
flexion is bringing them to touch your palm and extension is moving them back into anatomical position
To flex your wrist do you move it superiorly or inferiorly if you are holding your arm out?
Inferiorly
What is the orientation of the palm in anatomical position?
Supinated
Describe pronation of the palm
Palm faces the posterior part of the body
What is abduction of the thumb?
Taking thumb anteriorly away from the palm
What is adduction of the thumb?
“Adding” thumb back to palm after abduction anteriorly away from the palm
Describe extension of the thumb
Taking thumb laterally away from palm
Describe flexion of the thumb
Folding the thumb across the palm
Describe lateral flexion
Facing anteriorly but bending to the left or right at your hip as in a sideways lunge
What is elevation?
A superior movement such as shrugging your shoulders
What is depression?
An inferior movement such as returning your shoulders to normal after shrugging them.
Describe protrusion and retrusion of the jaw at the temporomandibular joints
protrusion is when your jaw moves forward e.g. when making a petted lip
retrusion is the return of your jaw to anatomical position
What is protraction?
An anterior movement
What is retracton?
A posterior movement
What does the prefix ‘costo’ or ‘costal’ relate to?
The ribs
What does the word chondral relate to?
cartilage
Where does the word oculi come from?
Relates to oculus, latin for ‘eye’
What is rectus latin for?
straight
What is vesicle latin for?
Bladder
What is systemic anatomy?
When we study the body organ systems that work together to carry out complex functions.
What is regional/topographical anatomy?
Considering the organisation of the human body as different major parts or segments e.g. the head and neck, trunk, etc
Describe surface anatomy?
Closely related to regional/topographical and is basically understanding what lies directly beneath the skin and what structures are palpable.
What is clinical anatomy?
Type of applied anatomy stressing the clinical relevance
What is a prosection?
A professionally dissected anatomical specimen which is plastinated (dipped in plastic) to help preserve them.
What is anatomical variation?
Recognition that everything we are taught/see in textbooks etc is the average but we don’t all look the same on the outside or inside.
What is the fascia?
Connective tissue wrapping/packaging/insulating material of the deep structures of the body.
What does the circulatory system do at the most basic level?
Transports fluids through the body
What two systems is the circulatory system comprised of?
Cardiovascular system
&
Lymphatic system
What are the functions of the circulatory system?
- Distribution of gases and other molecules for nutrition, growth and repair
- chemical signalling (hormones)
- thermoregulation
- mediate inflammation and host defence responses
What are the 3 main components of the cardiovascular system and what do they do?
Arterial system
- All arteries of the body carry blood away from the heart.
Heart
- The pump of the system
Venous system
- All the veins of the body carry blood towards the heart.
What are the two main circulations of the cardiovascular system?
Pulomary circulation
systemic circulation
Describe the pulmonary circulation
- From the right side of heart
- to lungs
- back to left side of heart
Describe the systemic circulation
- from the left side of the heart
- to capillary beds of organs and tissues
- back to the right side of the heart
What is systole?
contraction
What is diastole?
Relaxation
What is the average pulse rate?
70 beats per minute (bpm)
How many systoles are there?
There are two.
The atria contract first and then the ventricles so there is an atrial systole and a ventricular systole.
What kind of blood does the right side of the heart carry?
de-oxygenated
What kind of blood does the left side of the blood carry?
oxygenated
What is different about veins and arteries in the transport of blood around the heart?
Veins carry oxygenated blood and arteries carry de-oxygenated blood which is unusual.
What is the path that blood travels through the body?
Right atrium > Right ventricle > Pulmonary artery > Lungs > Pulmonary vein > Left atrium > Left ventricle > Aorta > Rest of the body
What are the 3 layers of the heart?
- Epicardium (external)
- Myocardium (middle)
- Endocardium (internal)
Ep- near to
myo- muscle
Endo- Internal
What is the Epicardium of the heart?
- Visceral serous pericardium
- An outer protective layer
- composed of loose connective tissue including elastic fibres and adipose tissue
Describe the myocardium of the heart
- Cardiac muscle layer
- Thick muscular layer
- responsible for contraction
What is the endocardium of the heart?
- The internal layer which is continuous with endothelium of blood vessels connecting with the heart
- forms the surface of valves
What are the four chambers of the heart?
Right atrium
Right ventricle
Left atrium
Left ventricle
Which border of the heart does the right atrium form?
The right border
Which surface of the heart does the right ventricle form?
Forms most of the anterior surface of the heart
Which heart chamber forms the left border of the heart?
The left ventricle
Which chamber of the heart forms the posterior surface of the heart?
Left atrium
What are the five great vessels of the heart?
Superior vena cava (SVC)
Inferior vena cava (IVC)
Aorta
Pulmonary trunk- divides into left and right pulmonary arteries
Pulmonary veins (x4)
What is the purpose of cardiac valves?
Valves ensure uni-directional blood flow i.e. they prevent the backflow of blood
Name the two atrio-ventricular valves located between the atria and the ventricles
Tricuspid valve and the mitral (bicuspid) valve
Where is the pulmonary valve located?
Between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk
Where is the tricuspid valve located?
Between the right atrium and the right ventricle
Where is the Mitral valve located?
Between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk.
Where is the aortic valve located?
Between the left ventricle and the aorta
What is the purpose of the pulmonary valve?
Prevents backflow from the pulmonary artery into the right ventricle
What is the purpose of the aortic valve?
It stops blood flowing back into the left ventricle from the aorta.
What is the normal route for electrical conduction in the heart?
- Electrical impulse starts spontaneously at SA node (causing both atria to contract)
- Travels to AV node at atrioventricular septum
- Travels down right and left bundles in the interventricular septum
- Spreads out to myocardium through conducting fibres (causing both ventricles to contract)
What is the route of arterial supply and venous drainage?
arteries
arterioles
capilaries
venules
veins
What is the lumen of a blood vessel?
The space through which blood travels
What are the three layers which comprise most blood vessels?
What is their location within vessels and what are they made of?
- Tunica intima (internal)- endothelium
- Tunica media (middle)- smooth muscles and elastic fibres
- Tunica adventitia (external)- connective tissue
What are the 7 key principles of arteries?
- Often part of a neurovascular bundle (nerve, artery, vein)
- High pressure (>120/80mmHg) so thick walls
- Often named by anatomical location (e.g. brachial artery, intercostal artery)
- Pulsatile
- Round lumen
- Typically located deeper than veins
- Carry oxygenated blood
When using the words proximal and distal in relation to arteries what do we mean?
Proximal- closer to the heart
Distal- away from the heart
What does bifurcation mean?
Divides into 2
What does trifurcation mean?
Divides into 3
What is a territory?
A region of the body supplied by a single artery and its branches.
What two terms indicate that a named artery will definitely divide again?
common
trunk
What happens when the smooth muscle in the walls of arterioles (& some arteries called muscular arteries) contracts?
This narrows the vessel’s lumen
Define Vasodilation
Relaxation of the smooth muscle in the walls of the arterioles and widening of the lumen to INCREASE blood flow to the organ/tissue supplied.
Define vasoconstriction
Contraction of the smooth muscle in the walls of the arterioles to REDUCE blood flow to the organ/tissue supplied.
What is the sympathetic tone?
Background, low level of contraction of smooth muscle in arterioles,
How does the sympathetic tone come about?
Due to tonic (continuous) conduction of action potentials to arterioles by sympathetic nerves.
How can the sympathetic nervous system reduce blood loss following an injury?
Arteriolar smooth muscle contraction (vasoconstriction) can help to reduce blood loss following an injury (the vessel is said to be in “spasm”)
What is an anastomosis?
An anastamosis is where arteries connect with eachother without an intervening capillary network
What is an arterial occlusion?
A blockage in the artery
What does an anastomosis do?
Provides alternative routes for blood to flow to supply the cells distal to an arterial occlusion e.g. there are anastomoses around elbows and knees to allow the bend during flexion.
What is an end artery?
An end artery is the ONLY arterial blood supply to a given area of the body (there are no collateral vessels)
What would happen if there was an untreated occlusion of an artery?
This would result in infarction of its territory
Define infarction
Irreversible cell death due to hypoxia (lack of oxygen) caused by loss of arterial blood supply.
Provide 3 examples of infarction
Fingertip infarction- occlusion of a digital artery branch (amputation)
Myocardial infarction- occlusion of a coronary artery (‘heart attack’ or death)
Retinal infarction- occlusion of the central artery of the retina (monocular blindness)
Provide 5 key facts about the aorta…
- All the systemic arterial blood enters the aorta first.
- Recieves blood at high pressure during systole (when the heart contracts).
- Its elastic walls expand under the pressure.
- Elastic recoil maintains peripheral flow when the heart relaxes (during diastole).
- Aorta has many branches which supply the whole body.
Name the 4 parts of the aorta
- Ascending aorta
- Arch of the aorta
- Thoracic aorta
- Abdominal aorta
How many branches does the ascending aorta have?
What are they called and what do they do?
Two branches
The left and right coronary artery
Supply the heart muscle with blood, so if they are blocked- MI
How many branches does the arch of the aorta have?
3
How many branches does the thoracic aorta have?
Numerous
How many branches does the abdominal aorta have?
3 unpaired midline branches & several paired, bilateral branches
Name the 3 branches of the arch of the aorta
- Brachiocephalic trunk (brachio= arm, cephalic=head)
- LEFT common carotid artery
3, LEFT subclavian artery (runs below the clavicle)
Where so the branches of the arch of the aorta supply?
Head, neck and upper limb
What two arteries does the brachiocephalic trunk bifurcate into?
Right common carotid artery
Left subclavian artery
What sometimes happens to arteries at different anatomical landmarks?
They can change their name
What do you always need to include when describing arteries?
Rights and lefts
internal/extrenal
Which arteries supply the pelvis/perineum and lower limbs?
common illiac arteries
Which bifurcations of the common iliac arteries supply the lower limbs and pelvis/perineum respectively?
External iliac artery- lower limbs
Internal iliac artery- pelvis/perineum
Name the 6 peripheral pulses
Carotid pulse
Femoral artery pulse
popliteal artery pulse
dorsalis pedis artery pulse
brachial artery pulse
radial artery pulse
Where can the carotid pulse be observed?
At the bifurcation of the common carotid artery
Where can the brachial artery pulse be felt?
Anterior to the elbow joint
Where can the radial artery pulse be observed?
Radial side of the palmar aspect of the wrist
Where can you feel the femoral artery pulse?
The continuation of the external iliac artery in the midpoint of the groin.
Where can you feel the popliteal artery pulse?
Posterior to the knee joint
Which peripheral pulse is located on the dorsum of the foot?
Dorsalis pedis artery pulse
What are the 7 key principles of veins?
- Often run in neurovascular bundle- nerve, artery, vein
- carry de-oxygenated blood
- low pressure and non-pulsatile
- drain blood away from a territory
- venules and veins merge like tributaries of a river
- Thin walled which are collapsed when empty
- They have valves!
What are the three ways venous blood is “pumped” back towards the heart?
- Venous valves
- skeletal muscle pump
- Venae comitantes
What is the function of venous valves when it comes to venous return?
In limb veins, valves are present to ensure unidirectional flow back to the heart against gravity.
How does the skeletal muscle pump allow venous return?
Contraction of skeletal muscles in the lower limb squeezes veins to help blood flow back to the heart.
How do venae comitantes allow venous return?
- small veins run in pairs or more with an artery in a sheath
- arterial pulsation pushes venous blood along
Name and describe the 2 sets of veins that the body posesses?
superficial veins- smaller and run within superficial fascia then drain into…
deep veins- larger and run deep to the deep fascia & in cavities often in NVB
What are the 2 main venous systems of the body?
The hepatic portal venous system
The Systemic venous system
What is the function of the hepatic portal venous system?
Drains venous blood from absorptive parts of the GI tract & associated organs to the liver for “cleaning”
What is the function of the systemic venous system?
Drains venous blood from all other organs and tissues into the superior and inferior vena cava.
List 4 key principles of capillaries
- Form extensive vascular networks
- lined with a single layer of endothelium
- Narrow lumen only allowing one red blood cell (erythrocyte) through at a time.
- Allow for exchange of gases, metabolites and waste products.
Why is it important to know about lymphatic drainage?
One of the major areas where infection or cancer can spread.
What is the function of lymphatic capillaries?
They collect tissue fluid (the fluid that normally leaks out when blood flows through capillary beds)
What is tissue fluid called when it enters the lymphatic capillaries?
Lymph
Describe lymphatic circulation
- Lymphatic capillaries collect tissue fluid.
- Once in the lymphatic capillaries the fluid is called lymph.
- lymphatics carry lymph through lymph nodes.
- Eventually lymph is returned into the central veins in the root of the neck.
Why are lymph nodes important?
Contain white blood cells to filter out foreign particles and fight infection/cancer.
Which lymphatic duct drains lymph into the right venous angle?
The right lymphatic duct
Which is the only lymphatic vessel large enough to be found in dissection?
The thoracic duct
Which lymphatic duct drains lymph into the left venous angle?
The thoracic duct
What are the two types of lymphatic vessels?
Superficial and deep
How is the lymphatic system a ‘recycling system’?
Lymph eventually drains back into the venous system at the venous angles in the root of the neck (where the central veins returning from the head/neck & upper limbs meet).
Which regions of the body does the thoracic duct drain?
Right and left lower limbs, abdomen, left side of the chest, left upper limb and left side of the head and neck
Which regions of the body does the lymphatic duct drain?
Right upper limb
Right side of the chest
Right side of the head and neck
What is another name given to conducting fibres?
Purkinje fibres
Can normal lymph nodes be palpated?
No
What does ‘palpated’ mean?
Felt beneath the examining doctors fingertips
Why would you be able to palpate a lymph node or see it on a CT scan?
Which bones make up the axial skeleton?
Bones of the skull
Bones of the neck
Bones of the trunk
Which bones make up the appendicular skeleton?
Bones of the pectoral girdle
Bones of the upper limbs
Bones of the pelvic girdle
Bones of the lower limb
What is the name of the single long bone in the arm?
Humerus
What are the names of the two long bones in the forarm?
- Radius (lateral aspect)
- Ulna (medial aspect)
What are the names of the three types of bones in the hand:
a) The wrist bones
b) The bones in the palm
c) The finger bones
a) Carpal bones
b) Metacarpals
c) Phalanges
What is the name of the one long bone in the thigh?
The fumur
Name the 2 long bones in the leg
- Tibia (medial aspect)
- Fibula (lateral aspect)
Name the 3 types of foot bone:
a) hindfoot/midfoot
b) forefoot
c) forefoot- toes
a) Tarsal bones
b) Metatarsals
c) Phalanges
When do bony features develop?
During bone growth
For what 3 reasons may bony features develop?
- Functional-best shape for the job (may help fulfil a function)
- An adjacent structure e.g. a tendon, a blood vessel, a nerve or another bone applies a force to the developing bone moulding its shape accordingly.
- An adjacent structure is developing at the same time as the bone- the bone has to grow around the other structure forming a foramen.
What is a tuberoscity?
A roughened, raised patch where the muscle or connective tissue is attaching to the bone.
What is a foramen?
An opening, hole or passage within the bone.
What two components make up the skeleton?
Bones and Cartilage
What is bone?
A hard connective tissue
What are the 4 functions of bone?
- Support & protection of the body organs
- Calcium metabolism
- Red blood cell formation
- Attachment for skeleltal muscles
Where does red blood cell formation occur?
In the bone marrow, usually in flat bones e.g. hips, sternum, skull, ribs, ends of long bones
Is connective tissue more or less rigid than bone?
Less rigid
Where is cartilage located?
Where mobility is required- at articulations (joints).
Where does movement of the skeleton occur?
At joints
How does movement of the skeleton occur?
Skeletal muscles which are attached to the bones contract to move the bones.
What are the 3 types and subtypes of joints?
- Synovial
- Cartilaginous
- Fibrous
What is each type of joint a compromise between?
Mobility and stability
Increased mobility = decreased stability
Decreased mobility = increased stability
Each joint has a different compromise profile.
_________ joints are the most mobile but least stable.
Synovial
________ joints are the least mobile but the most stable.
Fibrous
Do joints have a good sensory nerve supply?
Yes, joints have an excellent sensory nerve supply,
What are the 4 sensations detected by the sensory receptors of the joint nerves?
- pain
- touch
- temperature
- proprioception (sense of where a joint is positioned in space)
The arteries supplying joints arise from large named arteries located near the joint. What are these arteries at joints called?
Articular branches
Periarticular arterial anastomoses are common. What are these?
Periarterial- around the joint
anasatomoses-connection or opening between two things usually branching or diverging.
So there are arterial connections between arteries around the joint to ensure no matter what way a joint moves there is a continuous blood supply.
How can the arteries supplying joints become damaged?
Dislocation
Pathology such as arthritis
Which type of muscles produce movement and locomotion of the skeleton?
Skeletal muscles
Where are skeletal muscles usually found?
Deep to deep fascia.
Deep fascia is a tough, fibrous, connective tissue covering that lies deep to the superficial fascia and surrounds most of the skeletal muscles of the body.
What is skeletal muscle?
A tough fibrous connective tissue covering.
There are many different types of muscle fibres. Name 4.
- Circular- usually around body orifaces
- fusiform- spindle shaped
- Pennate- feather like
- quadrate- four equal sides
What is the benefit of longer muscle fibres?
Greater potential range of shortening.
Greater potential range of movement produced at joint.
i.e. longer muscles can contract more and produce more movement at a joint.
Skeletal muscles are usually named according to combination of 6 things. Name them
- Shape- latin/Greek name
- location- body region
- size- relative size e.g. major/minor
- main bony attachment
- main action/movement
There are usually at least 2 points of attachment of skeletal muscle to bone. What are they called?
- The “origin(s)” on one side of a joint
- The “insertions” on the other side
What is the function of skeletal muscle?
- Move the origin and insertion closer together during contraction.
- During contraction, muscle fibres shorten along the long axis between the origin and insertion.
Skeletal muscles can only move a joint if they cross a joint and attach to bones on either side.
What do tendons do?
Attach the muscle (usually) to bone.
- Found at either end of the muscle
- non-contractile, they do not contract themselves they just transmit the force generated by the muscle to move the bone
What does the direction of movement of skeletal muscle depend on?
Which side of the joint the muscle spans
Explain how you would know the direction of movement of the biceps brachii
- spans the shoulder joint anteriorly, therefore it flexes the arm at the shoulder joint.
- spans the elbow joint anteriorly therefore it flexes the forearm at the elbow joint
- spans the proximal radioulnar joint anteriorly producing supination of the forearm
How can the actions of any given muscle be worked out? Provide 4 contributors
- which joint is spanned
- the long axis of the muscle fibres
- the aspect of the joint that is spanned
- the shapes of the articular surfaces of the joint
What is an aponeurosis?
A flattened tendon
- most commonly associated with flat muscles
- attach muscle to soft tissue rather than bone
How is circumduction of the shoulder permitted?
By the shallow socket of the glenoid fossa of the scapula
There is nothing to stop the ball rotating right around in the socket.
Describe the movement of the trochlea of the distal humerus
- only flexion/extension
- trochlear notch of the proximal ulna is a very specific shape so that when the trochlea is in it forms a sort of hinge and only moves in a very specific way.
The deltoid only crosses one joint- the shoulder joint. How can it cause differnet movements odf the shoulder>
Its muscle fibres are orientated in different directions.
Which movement of the shoulder do the posterior fibres of a deltoid allow?
Extension
Which movement of the shoulder do the middle fibres of the delotid allow?
Abduction
Which movement of the shoulder do the anterior fibres of the deltoid allow?
Flexion
What are the 2 key features of reflexes?
- Protective
- automatic
Name the 2 main reflexes involving skeletal muscles
- Stretch reflex
- flexion withdrawal reflex
What are reflexes?
Rapid, predictable, involuntary reactions to danger.
Movement is made unconsciously by the nervous system and muscles
What is involved in a flexion withdrawal reflex?
- Touch something potentially damaging
- sudden flexion to withdraw from the danger
- nerve connections are at a spinal cord level the brain is not involved
Name the 4 stretch reflexes
- bicep jerks
- tricep jerks
- knee jerk
- ankle jerk
How do we test stretch reflexes?
- A tendon hammer is used to apply a brief, sudden stretch to the muscle via its tendon.
- normal reflex response to being stretched is to contract
- reflex contraction results in a brief twitch of the muscle belly or a movement in the normal direction.
- reflexes are protective against overstretching
What are the three steps/nerves involved in deep tendon reflexes?
- Sensory nerve from muscle detects the stretch & tells the spinal cord
- synapse in the spinal cord between the sensory & motor nerves
- motor nerve from spinal cord passes message to muscle to contract
What is the name of the junction where the motor nerve communicates with the skeletal muscle?
Neuormuscular junction
What is the name of the route taken by the action potentials during a reflex?
The reflex arc
The _______ prevents the reflex from being overly brisk
Brain
A normal stretch reflex indicates that the following are functioning normally:
Provide 6 points
- The muscle
- Its sensory nerves
- Its motor nerve fibres
- The spinal cord connections between the two
- The neuromuscular junctions
- “descending controls” from the brain
What does it mean if a muscle is paralysed?
The muscle is without a functioning motor nerve supply.
Can a paralysed muscle contract?
No, a paralysed muscle cannot contract
On examination, a paralysed muscle would have ____________ tone.
reduced
reduced tone- reduced resistance to stretch, floppy
If a muscle shows spacticity, does it have a functioning and intact motor nerve?
Yes, the muscle has an intact and functioning motor nerve.
On examination, a muscle with spasticity would have ___________ tone.
Increased
What is muscle atrophy?
‘Wasting’ of the muscles
What happens to the muscle cells during muscle atrophy?
Muscle fibres (myocytes) become smaller, reducing the muscles bulk.
How does muscle atrophy develop?
As a result of inactivity
- immobilisation after fracture
- damage to motor nerve supply
- ‘couch potato’
What is the process opposite to muscle atrophy?
hypertrophy
What happens during muscle hyperytophy?
- Skeletal muscles enlarge
- Each individual myocyte enlarges
What are gametes?
Haploid cells which contain half the genetic information of a normal cell.
They are sex cells
What is the name of the male gametes?
spermatozoa
What is the name of the female gamete?
Oocyte or ovum
What produces the gametes?
The gonads
what is the name of the male gonads?
The testes
What is the name of the female gonads?
The ovaries
What is produced during fertilization?
A diploid cell called a zygote
During normal fertilisation the ovum moves from the _______ to _________ of the uterine tube.
Many spermatozoa move from _______ to vagina.
- ovary
- ampulla
- testis
does a zygote have a full chromosome compliment/set of genetic information?
Yes
State three points which describe how the pelvic cavity can be found
- lies within the bony pelvis
- continuous with the abdominal cavity
- between the pelvic inlet and the pelvic outlet
What is the pelvic inlet?
A superior ring of bone formed by the pelvic bones
Where does the pelvic cavity end?
At the pelvic outlet which is basically the way from the pelvis to the perineum.
What is the pelvic floor and what does it do?
- Internal wall of skeletal muscle
- separates pelvic cavity and perineum
There are openings in the pelvic floor for which three tracts?
- Distal alimentary
- reproductive
- renal
What is the perineum?
Space or body region between the proximal part of the limbs which is inferior to the pelvic floor.
What is the pelvic roof formed by?
parietal peritoneum
What is the parietal peritoneum?
The lining of the abdominal cavity
Describe the parietal peritoneum
- firmly attached to walls
- drapes over pelvic viscera
- tightly arrached to the anterior, posterior and lateral walls of the abdominal cavity
- thin, transparent, serous (secreting seral/peritoneal fluid) membrane
What are the names of the two pouches created by the peritoneum draping over the viscera?
- Recto-uterine pouch
- vesico-uterine pouch
What is another name for the recto-uterine pouch?
Pouch of douglas
Why is the pouch of douglas clinically important?
It is classed as the most inferior part of the peritoneal cavity in an upright female patient so any abdominal fluid such as blood or pus will collect here when the patient is upright.
What is the external urethral orifice the opening to?
Urinary tract
What is the vaginal orifice the opening to?
Female genital tract
What is the anus the opening to?
The gastrointestinal tract
What is the anterior aspect which is a kind of fatty pad at the pubic synthesis of the surface anatomy of the perineum called?
Mons pubis
What is the shape of the surface anatomy of the perineum in a female?
diamond
What is located at either side of the diamond shape that makes up the surface anatomy of the perineum in the female?
Labia madura
Name the female reproductive organs
Ovaries
Name the accessory female reproductive organs
- uterine tubes
- uterus
- vagina
Name the 3 layers of the body of the uterus wall
- perimetrium
- myometrium
- endometrium
What is the name of the opening at the uterine tubes into the peritoneal cavity?
Ostium
Describe the 3 layers of the body of the uterus wall
- Perimetrium- very thin outer layer
- Myometrium- thick muscular layer that contracts during menstrual cramping
- endometrium- thickens during the menstrual cycle for potential implantation and sheds if no implantation.
Name the top, middle and bottom parts of the uterus
- Top-fundus
- middle-body
- bottom-cervix
Where does fertilisation usually occur?
In the ampulla
Where does implantation occur?
In the body of the uterus
Describe the pathway of an unfertilized ovum during the menstrual cycle
- Ova develops in the ovaries
- Each mentstrual cycle, 1 ovum is released form surface of ovary into peritoneal cavity.
- ovum is gathered by fimbraie into infundibilum of uterine tube.
- moved along uterine tube by cilia.
- during menstruation, an unfertilised ovum is expelled by contractions of the myometrium.
Which gland plays a vital role in regulating the female hormone production and the development of the ova?
The pituitary gland.
What sweeps the ovum along the uterine tube?
Cilia
When does an ectopic pregnancy occur?
When the fertilised ovum implants outwith the uterine cavity,
97%- tubal pregnancies
some can happen in the abdomen or peritoneal cavity
What are the risks of ectopic pregnancies?
- Potential emergency
- danger of haemorrhage and mortality to the mother
What happens if an STI in the vagina spreads through the uterus and uterine tubes into the peritoneal cavity?
Can cause peritonitis- inflammation of the peritoneum
What is the name of female sterilisation?
Tubal ligation
What happens during tubal ligation?
Both uterine tubes are clipped, cut or cauterised which blocks the lumen and prevents passage of an egg or sperm through the uterine tubes.
What does the scrotum contain?
The testis
What is the urethra for?
Passing urine and ejaculation of sperm
What is a more common name given to the prepuce?
foreskin
What is the final common pathway of the urinary and reproductive tracts?
The urethra
What are the primary male reproductive organs?
The testes
Name the accessory reproductive organs in males
The vas deferens, the seminal glands, prostate glands and the penis
Where do the testis originate during development?
On the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity.
Where do the testes descend to through the anterior abdominal wall (inguinal canal) by birth?
Into the scrotum
What is the name of the tube that sperm pass through that follows the testis into the scrotum?
The vas (vas deferens)
Which 2 structures does the vas connect?
The testis to (almost) the urethra
Where does the neurovasculature originate for the male reproductive system?
The posterior wall of the abdominal cavity.
The inguinal canal creates a weak point in the male reproductive system, what is this susceptible to?
Hernia formation
What can happen if the testis don’t descend properly?
Can cause further fertility issues down the line.
Where are the sperm produced?
seminiferous tubules
What route do the sperm travel from the testes? (3 locations)
- Pass to the rete testis
- Then into the head of the epididymus
- epididymus becomes the vas deferens
Describe how and which muscle keeps the seminiferous tubules and the testis approx 1ºC below core body temp
- dartos muscle helps to control temp
- smooth muscle that sits in the wall of the scrotum and reflexively contracts to help control temp of the testis.
- Can bring testis closer to the body by contracting to heat them up or relax to cool them on a warm day
How many sperm are produced every second?
1500
How long does each sperm take to mature?
64 days
What does the spermatic cord contain?
- vas deferens
- testicular artery
- pampiniform plexus of veins
What happens in torsion of the testis?
- twisting of the spermatic cord
- disrupts blood supply
- severe pain
- danger of testicular necrosis
- surgical emergency- needed roughly 2-3 hours after onset
Which seminal gland produces seminal fluid?
The right seminal gland
What does the (prostatic) urethra do?
- drains urine from bladder
- passes semen in ejaculation
Describe in 4 points the path of the sperm and how semen is produced
- Vas deferens doesn’t go into the bladder it sits on the posterior surface of both sides.
- seminal gland is a vesicle that produces seminal fluid. Vas deferens end when joined by the seminal gland. At this point sperm and seminal fluid combine and become semen.
- Prostatic urethra as it passes through the prostate gland
- Once in the urethra sperm and semen continue through the penis ready for ejaculation
Name the 4 parts of the posterior surface of the penis from the most proximal to the most distal
- Root of the penis
- Body of the penis
- Glans
- External urethral orifice
What happens during an erection?
Three cylinders of erectile tissue become filled with blood at arterial pressure.
Where does each vas deferens lie?
Within the spermatic cord
Each spermatic cord passes through the _________ abdominal wall within the _________ canal to reach the pelvic cavity.
- Anterior
- inguinal
What is semen comprised of?
Sperm + seminal fluid
Within the pelvis each vas deferens connects with the duct from a ________ gland (produces seminal fluid) to form an _____________ duct containing semen.
- seminal
- ejaculatory
Where do the ejaculatory ducts join together and subsequently drain?
- Right and left ejaculatory ducts join together within the prostate gland (immediately inferior to the bladder)
- Drain into the urethra
Where does the urethra open?
At the external urethral meatus of the penis
