Physiological Psych/Psychopharm Flashcards
Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) is a rare, but potentially fatal side effect of the antipsychotic drugs. It involves a rapid onset of motor, mental, and autonomic symptoms including muscle rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia, and altered consciousness. To avoid a potentially fatal outcome, the drug must be stopped as soon as symptoms of NMS develop.
Broca’s aphasia
Broca’s aphasia is caused by damage to Broca’s area and involves difficulty producing written or spoken language with little or no comprehension issues; it often includes anomia and impaired repetition.
Aphasia is impaired production and/or comprehension of language.
Conduction aphasia
Conduction aphasia is caused by damage to the arcuate fasciculus and does not significantly affect comprehension but does result in anomia, paraphasia, and impaired repetition.
anomia - patient is unable to recall the names of everyday objects.
paraphasia - words are jumbled and sentences meaningless.
Aphasia is impaired production and/or comprehension of language.
Wernicke’s Aphasia
receptive
Wernicke’s aphasia is caused by damage to Wernicke’s area and involves an inability to comprehend written or spoken language along with the production of rapid, seemingly effortless speech that is lacking in content; it may include anomia, paraphasia, and impaired repetition.
Aphasia is impaired production and/or comprehension of language.
Hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia (low blood glucose) is caused by excessive secretion of insulin by the pancreas and is characterized by hunger, dizziness, headaches, blurred vision, palpitations, anxiety, depression, and confusion.
All-or-None Principle
The all-or-none principle predicts that an action potential will always be of the same magnitude regardless of the amount of stimulation received by a neuron as long as the minimal level of stimulation (the threshold) has been reached.
Action Potential
With sufficient stimulation from other cells, a cell becomes depolarized (the interior of the cell becomes less negative), which triggers an action potential - i.e., an electrical impulse that travels quickly through the cell.
Neuron
The neuron is a specialized nerve cell involved in mental processes and behavior. Messages within a neuron are transmitted from a neuron’s dendrites to the end of its axon through an electrical process called conduction.
Weber’s Law
Weber’s Law states that the just noticeable difference in stimulus intensity is a constant proportion of the initial stimulus intensity.
Fechner’s law
Fechner’s law states that physical stimulus changes are logarithmically related to their psychological sensations
Stevens’s Power Law
Stevens’s Power Law proposes that the magnitude of a sensation is equal to the physical magnitude of the stimulus producing the sensation raised to a certain power (exponent) which varies, depending on the specific sensation being measured.
Psychophysical Laws
The psychophysical laws attempt to predict the relationship between perception and sensation.
suprachiasmatic nucleus
The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which is located in the hypothalamus, is involved in regulation of the body’s circadian rhythms.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus consists of a cluster of nuclei that control the autonomic nervous system and endocrine glands, mediate basic drives, and regulate emotional expression.
Imipramine, Clomipramine
Tricyclics
Imipramine has also been found useful for treating enuresis, (inability to control urination) while clomipramine is an effective treatment for Panic Disorder, Agoraphobia, Bulimia Nervosa, and OCD.
Tricyclics
The tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) are believed to work by blocking the reuptake of norepinephrine, dopamine, and/or serotonin. They are most effective for alleviating somatic, vegetative symptoms. Side effects include anticholinergic effects, confusion, drowsiness, weight gain, and cardiovascular symptoms.
Temporal Lobe And Wernicke’s Area
The temporal lobe contains the primary auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area.
Damage can result in
- auditory agnosia
- cortical deafness
- impairments in long-term memory
- Wernicke’s (receptive) aphasia
General Adaptation Syndrome
According to Selye, the human response to stress is mediated by adrenal-pituitary secretions (e.g., cortisol) and involves three stages:
- alarm reaction
- resistance
- exhaustion
The model predicts that prolonged stress can result in illness or death.
Occipital Lobe And Visual Agnosia/Prosopagnosia
The occipital lobe contains the visual cortex.
Damage to the occipital lobe can result in
- visual agnosia (inability to recognize familiar objects),
- color agnosia,
- word blindness, and/or
- scotomas (blind spots).
Lesions at the junction of the occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes can produce prosopagnosia (inability to recognize familiar faces).
Emotion (Areas Of The Brain)
Areas of the brain that have been implicated in the regulation of emotion include the
- amygdala (which plays a role in the perception and expression of anger, fear, sadness, happiness, and other emotions and attaches emotion to memories)
- hypothalamus (which is involved in the translation of emotions into physical responses)
- cerebral cortex. With regard to the latter, the left hemisphere governs happiness and other positive emotions, while the right hemisphere mediates sadness, fear, and other negative emotions.
Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson’s disease is a progressive degenerative disease characterized by tremor, muscular rigidity, akathisia, akinesia, and speech difficulties; and it may eventually include dementia. Symptoms are temporarily relieved by L-dopa, a dopamine agonist. Parkinson’s disease is believed to be due to degeneration of dopamine-containing cells, especially in the substantia nigra.
Frontal Lobe (contains, involved in)
The frontal lobe occupies the major portion of the cortex and includes the primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, premotor cortex, Broca’s area, and prefrontal cortex.
It is involved in
- initiative
- planning ability
- abstract thinking
- executive functions;
- personality and mood; and
- motor functions.
Damage to: Frontal Lobe, Broca’s Area, Prefrontal Cortex
Damage to Broca’s area produces Broca’s (expressive) aphasia.
Damage to the prefrontal cortex produces personality changes and deficits in higher-level cognitive abilities.
Menopause/Hormone Replacement Therapy
The decreased estrogen levels that accompany menopause produce a variety of emotional and physical symptoms including hot flashes, fatigue, mood swings, nausea, vaginal dryness, and loss of bone mass.
Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) alters estrogen levels only or both estrogen and progesterone levels and is effective for eliminating hot flashes, mood swings, and vaginal dryness and reduces the risk for bone loss.
Hypothyroidism
Hypothyroidism is caused by hyposecretion of thyroxine and involves a slowed metabolism, slowed heart rate, lethargy, lowered body temperature, impaired concentration and memory, and depression.
Hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism is caused by hypersecretion of thyroxine by the thyroid gland and is characterized by a sped-up metabolism, elevated body temperature, accelerated heart rate, increased appetite with weight loss, nervousness, and insomnia.
Hypertension
There are two types of hypertension.
Primary (essential) hypertension occurs when there is no known physiological cause.
Secondary hypertension occurs when elevated blood pressure is related to a known disease.
Primary hypertension accounts for about 85 to 90% of all cases; untreated, it can lead to cardiovascular disease. It is a major cause of heart failure, kidney failure, and stroke.
The prevalence of hypertension is related to age, race, and gender. Older adults have higher rates than younger adults, and African Americans have higher rates than Whites. Rates are generally higher for men; however, for older adults and African Americans, rates are higher for women.
Methylphenidate
Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta, Metadate) is a psychostimulant drug used to treat ADHD in children and adults.
Common side effects include decreased appetite, insomnia, dysphoria, and growth suppression.
Naltrexone
Naltrexone (ReVia, Vivitrol) is an opioid antagonist that blocks the craving for and reinforcing effects of alcohol and is used to treatment Alcohol Abuse and Dependence.
Side effects include abdominal cramping, nausea, vomiting, insomnia, nervousness, headache, and joint and muscle pain.
Gate-Control Theory of Pain
According to gate-control theory, there are mechanisms in the spinal cord that mediate (block) the perception of pain.
Effects Of Psychoactive Drugs
Terms used to describe the effects of the psychoactive drugs include the following:
(1) Agonists produce effects similar to those produced by a neurotransmitter.
(2) Inverse agonists produce an effect opposite the effect produced by a neurotransmitter or an agonist.
(3) Partial agonists produce effects that are similar to (but less than) the effects produced by a neurotransmitter or an agonist.
(4) Antagonists produce no activity in the cell on their own but, instead, reduce or block the effects of a neurotransmitter or agonist.
Basal Ganglia Pathology
Pathology
Basal ganglia pathology has been linked to
- Huntington’s disease
- Parkinson’s disease
- Tourette’s Disorder
- OCD
- ADHD
Basal Ganglia Parts
CGPS
- Caudate nucleus
- Globus pallidus
- Putamen
- Substantia nigra
Basal Ganglia
What they do
The basal ganglia are subcortical structures that are involved in planning, organizing, and coordinating voluntary movements
Hippocampus
The hippocampus is a limbic system structure that is important for spatial and explicit memory and the consolidation of declarative memories.
Parasympathetic Branch
The parasympathetic branch regulates energy conservation and relaxation.
Activation is associated with:
- slowing of heart rate
- lowered blood pressure
- contraction of pupils
- reduction of sweat gland output
- increased activity of the digestive system
Sympathetic Branch
The sympathetic branch is involved in the mediation of flight or fight (emergency) reactions. Activation of the sympathetic branch produces increased:
- heart rate
- pupil dilation
- increased blood sugar
- inhibition of the digestive processes
Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the peripheral nervous system and is involved in the control of visceral functions
- heart rate
- blood pressure
- respiration
- digestion
- sweating
It consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches:
The right hemisphere dominates in
- visual-spatial activities such as facial recognition
- spatial interpretation and memory for shapes
- negative emotions
The left hemisphere dominates
Brain Lateralization
in
- verbal activities (spontaneous speaking and writing, word recognition, memory for words and numbers)
- analytical
- logical thought
- positive emotional states.
Brain Lateralization Discovery
This specialization is referred to as brain lateralization and was initially studied in split-brain patients, whose corpus callosums had been severed to control severe epilepsy.
Type A Behavior Pattern
People exhibiting the Type A behavior pattern are highly competitive and achievement-oriented, have a sense of time urgency, and tend to be hostile, easily irritated, and impatient.
A number of studies have confirmed that, of the Type A characteristics, cynical or antagonistic hostility is most strongly associated with health problems, especially coronary heart disease in males.
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis
Although the mechanisms that trigger the development of the secondary sex characteristics are not well understood, it occurs when the hypothalamus secretes chemicals that stimulate the anterior pituitary gland, which then releases the gonadotropic hormones that stimulate testosterone and sperm production by the testes or ovulation and estrogen production by the ovaries. This system is referred to as the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.
Secondary Sex Characteristics
At puberty, an increase in gonadal hormones influences the emergence of secondary sex characteristics and the development of the reproductive system.
Benzos
Side effects and withdrawal
Side effects include
- drowsiness
- ataxia
- slurred speech
- other signs of CNS depression
- paradoxical agitation
- impaired sexual functioning
- confusion
- sleep disturbances
abrupt cessation can cause rebound hyperexcitability
Benzodiazepines
What are they used for
Benzodiazepines are the most commonly prescribed anxiolytic and are used for
anxiety,
sleep disturbances,
seizures,
cerebral palsy, and
alcohol withdrawal.
Sedative-Hypnotics (Benzodiazepines)
What are they
The sedative-hypnotics:
- barbiturates
- anxiolytics
- alcohol
are generalized CNS depressants with dose dependent effects.
Low doses reduce arousal and motor activity; moderate doses induce sedation and sleep; and high doses produce anesthesia, coma, and death.
Spinal Cord Segments and Groups
It consists of 31 segments, which are divided into five groups. From the top of the spinal cord to the bottom, these are:
- cervical
- thoracic
- lumbar
- sacral
- coccygeal
Spinal Cord (Quardriplegia and Paraplegia)
The spinal cord carries information between the brain and the peripheral nervous system, coordinates activities of the left and right sides of the body, and controls simple reflexes that do not involve the brain.
Damage at the cervical level ordinarily results in quadriplegia (loss of sensory and voluntary motor functioning in the arms and legs), while damage at the thoracic level causes paraplegia (loss of functioning in the legs).
Huntington’s Emotional and Cognitive Symptoms
For many patients, emotional and cognitive symptoms appear first and include
- depression
- apathy
- anxiety
- antisocial tendencies
- forgetfulness
Huntington’s Motor Symptoms
Early motor symptoms include fidgeting, and clumsiness, which are followed by facial grimaces and “piano-playing” movements of the fingers.
Huntington’s Disease
Cause
Huntington’s disease is an inherited degenerative disease that is transmitted by a single autosomal dominant gene and involves emotional, cognitive, and motor symptoms.
Tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizures
include a tonic stage wherein the muscles contract and the body stiffens; a clonic stage with rhythmic shaking of the limbs; and postseizure depression or confusion with amnesia for the ictal event.
Absence (petit mal) seizures
are brief attacks involving a loss of consciousness without prominent motor symptoms.
Partial seizures
begin in one side of the brain and affect one side of the body, at least initially but can spread into generalized seizures.
Generalized Seizures Definition
Generalized (tonic-clonic and absence) seizures are bilaterally symmetrical without a focal onset.
Lithium vs. Anticonvulsant
Lithium is usually the drug-treatment-of-choice for classic Bipolar Disorder, while an anticonvulsant drug may be more effective for patients who experience rapid mood swings or who have dysphoric mania.
Protein/RNA Synthesis
Inhibiting the synthesis of protein or RNA at the time of learning prevents the formation of long-term memories.
Mood Stabilizing Drugs Purpose
Mood stabilizing drugs are used to alleviate mania and mood swings in Bipolar Disorder and include lithium and anticonvulsants (e.g., carbamazepine).
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
a physiological process involving the modification of nerve synapses, especially at glutamate receptors in the hippocampus
Learning And Memory (Neural Mechanisms)
Neural mechanisms that are believed to mediate long-term memory include long-term potentiation and protein/RNA synthesis.
Cerebrovascular Accident Symptoms
Common symptoms include contralateral hemiplegia, hemianesthesia involving the face, arm, and leg, and contralateral visual field loss.
Cerebrovascular Accident
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) is also referred to as cerebral stroke and refers to brain damage that occurs when a blood clot or other obstruction or hemorrhage disrupts the flow of blood to the brain.
Prozac
Fluoxetine (Prozac) is one of the most widely-prescribed antidepressants but its use is surrounded by controversy due to evidence linking it to an increased risk for suicide.
SSRI benefit vs. TCAs
In comparison to the TCAs, the SSRIs are
- less cardiotoxic
- safer in overdose
- less likely to produce cognitive impairments
SSRI Side Effects
Side effects include gastrointestinal disturbances, sexual dysfunction, insomnia, anxiety, headache, and anorexia.
SSRIs (Fluoxetine)
The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI’s) are antidepressant drugs that exert their effects by blocking the reuptake of serotonin at nerve synapses.
Reticular Activating System
The reticular activating system (RAS) is a network of nerve fibers involved in wakefulness, arousal, and consciousness.
Hypertensive Crisis Symptoms
Symptoms of a hypertensive crisis include severe headache, stiff neck, rapid heart rate, nausea, vomiting, sweating, and sensitivity to light.
MAOI-induced Hypertensive Crisis
The most dangerous side effect is hypertensive crisis, which can occur when an MAOI is taken in conjunction with barbiturates, amphetamines, antihistamines, or certain other drugs, or with foods containing the amino acid tyramine (e.g., aged cheeses and meats, beer, red wine, chicken liver, avocados, bananas, fava beans).
MAOIs Definition
The MAOIs are antidepressants that work by inhibiting the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which is involved in deactivating dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
Definition
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome is due to a thiamine deficiency that causes atrophy of neurons in certain areas of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus and is usually the result of chronic alcoholism.
retrograde amnesia
where you can’t recall memories that were formed before the event that caused the amnesia
Retrograde amnesia affects recent memories more than remote memories and, when long-term memories begin to return, the more remote memories return first.
anterograde amnesia
a type of memory loss that occurs when you can’t form new memories
referred to as post-traumatic amnesia, and its duration is a good predictor of recovery.
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
Progression
It begins with Wernicke’s encephalopathy, which is characterized by mental confusion, abnormal eye movements, and ataxia; and is then followed by Korsakoff’s syndrome, which involves severe anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, and confabulation.
Thalamus
Definition
The thalamus is a “relay station” for all of the senses except olfaction and is also involved in language and memory.
Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
are structural techniques
Positron-emission tomography (PET), single proton emission computed tomography (SPECT), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
provide information on the functional activities of the brain.
Neuroimaging Techniques
Neuroimaging techniques make it possible to study both the structure and function of the living brain. are structural techniques.
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
TBI refers to a closed- or open-head injury to the brain that is caused by an external force and involves temporary or permanent impairments in cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and/or physical functioning.
A closed-head injury usually causes an alteration or loss of consciousness followed by anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
GABA
GABA is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter and is believed to be involved in anxiety, sleep, and seizures. Low levels of GABA in the motor region are associated with Huntington’s disease.
Serotonin
Serotonin ordinarily inhibits behavior and is involved in the regulation of mood, hunger, arousal, sleep, temperature, and pain and in the Bipolar and Depressive Disorders, Schizophrenia, and OCD.
Dopamine
Dopamine is involved in inhibitory motor regulation and motivational/emotional functions. Insufficient dopamine in the basal ganglia is believed to underlie Parkinson’s disease; excessive activity at dopamine receptors has been linked to Schizophrenia and Tourette’s Disorder.
Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine mediates neuromuscular transmission, parasympathetic arousal, and memory (e.g., memory loss in Alzheimer’s dementia).
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemical substances that are released from axon terminals, diffuse across synapses, and excite or inhibits receptor sites on postsynaptic nerve cells.
apraxia
inability to perform skilled motor movements in the absence of impaired motor functioning
anosognosia
inability to recognize one’s own neurological symptoms or other disorder
Gerstmann’s syndrome
involves a combination of finger agnosia, right-left confusion, agraphia, and acalculia.
Parietal Lobe Damage
The parietal lobe contains the somatosensory cortex. Depending on its location, damage to the parietal lobe can cause
- apraxia
- anosognosia
- Gerstmann’s syndrome
Beta-Blocker
Side Effects
Common side effects of propranolol include
- bradycardia,
- nausea,
- diarrhea,
- dizziness,
- decreased sexual ability
- trouble sleeping
Beta-Blockers
Clinical Use
They are used to treat cardiovascular disorders, glaucoma, and migraine headache and are also useful for reducing the physical symptoms of anxiety.
Beta-Blockers (Propranolol)
Method of action
Propranolol and other beta-blockers block or diminish the cardiovascular excitatory response to the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Postconcussional Syndrome
When using the DSM-5, a person with postconcussional syndrome would receive a diagnosis of Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Traumatic Brain Injury when the following criteria are met:
(a) The person’s symptoms meet the criteria for Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder.
(b) There is evidence of a traumatic brain injury with at least one of the following - loss of consciousness, posttraumatic amnesia, disorientation and confusion, and/or neurological signs (e.g., seizures, visual field cuts, hemiparesis).
(c) The neurocognitive disorder occurs immediately after the traumatic brain injury or immediately after recovery of consciousness and continues past the acute post-injury period.
Contralateral Representation
For most sensory and motor functions, the cortex exhibits contralateral representation, which means that the left hemisphere controls the functions of** the right side** of the body and vice-versa.
Cerebral Ventricles/Hydrocephalus
The ventricles are the four cavities of the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid.
Blockage of the ventricles and a resulting build-up of fluid can cause hydrocephalus.
Sexual Dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism refers to sex-related differences in physical appearance, and the research has confirmed that the human brain is sexually dimorphic. Studies using structural brain imaging techniques have found sex-related differences in the size of specific regions of the brain including the corpus callosum, hippocampus, and SCN.
The hippocampus and learning
The hippocampus consolidates of long-term declarative memories (transferring information from short-term to long-term memory).
The amygdala and learning
The amygdala plays a key role in fear conditioning, learning about rewards and punishments, and adding emotional significance to memories
Temporal Lobes and learning
The temporal lobes which encode, store, and retrieve of long-term declarative memories.
The prefrontal cortex and learning
The prefrontal cortex is associated with short-term memory, episodic memory, and prospective memory.
Thalamus and learning
The thalamus is involved in processing information and transferring it to the neocortex.
Dopamine Hypothesis
According to the dopamine hypothesis, Schizophrenia is due to overactivity at dopamine receptors either as the result of oversensivity of the receptors or excessive dopamine levels.
Medulla
The medulla is a hindbrain structure that controls the flow of information between the spinal cord and brain and regulates a number of vital functions including
- breathing
- heartbeat
- blood pressure
Corpus Callosum
The right and left hemispheres are connected by several bundles of fibers, the largest of which is the corpus callosum. If the corpus callosum is severed, the two hemispheres operate essentially as separate, independent brains.
Traditional Antipsychotics
Usage and side effects
They are most effective for positive symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, agitation, thought disorders). Side effects include anticholinergic, extrapyramidal effects, and neuroleptic malignant syndrome.
Traditional Antipsychotics
Basic definition
The traditional antipsychotic drugs (e.g., phenothiazines) are used for the management of Schizophrenia and other psychoses.
Papez’s Circuit
Papez’s circuit was proposed as a brain mechanism (circuit) that mediates the experience and expression of emotion.
It includes the
- hippocampus
- mammillary bodies
- anterior nuclei of the thalamus
- cingulate gyrus
Depth Perception/Retinal Disparity
Depth perception depends on a combination of binocular and monocular cues. Retinal disparity is a binocular cue and refers to the fact that our two eyes see objects in the world from two different views; and the closer an object, the greater the disparity of the two images.
Narcotic-Analgesics
The drugs classified as narcotic-analgesics (opioids) have both sedative and analgesic properties.
Medically, the narcotic-analgesics are used for the same reasons they were used centuries ago - i.e., as analgesics, treatments for diarrhea, and cough suppressants.
Chronic use of a narcotic-analgesic results in tolerance and psychological and physical dependence.
Withdrawal symptoms resemble those associated with a bad case of the flu.
trichromatic color theory
trichromatic theory, there are three types of color receptors that are each receptive to a different primary color (red, blue, or green). All other colors are produced by variations in the activity of these three receptors
Opponent Process color theory
The opponent-process theory postulates three bipolar receptors: red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black. According to this theory, some cells are excited by red and inhibited by green, and so on; and the overall pattern of stimulation of these cells produces the various colors that we perceive.
Synesthesia
Synesthesia (“joining senses”) is a rare condition in which the stimulation of one sensory modality triggers a sensation in another sensory modality. For example, a person with synesthesia might hear a color or taste a shape.
Lazarus’s cognitive appraisal theory
Lazarus’s cognitive appraisal theory says that emotions are universal but differences in how emotion-arousing events are appraised. It distinguishes between three types of cognitive appraisal: primary, secondary, and re-appraisal.
Cannon-Bard Theory
Cannon-Bard theory focuses on the brain mechanisms that mediate emotion, proposing that emotional and bodily reactions to stimuli occur simultaneously due to thalamic stimulation of the cortex and the peripheral nervous system.
C and B are close together, Body and Emotion happening at the same time
James-Lange Theory
James-Lange theory focuses on peripheral factors, proposing that emotions represent perceptions of bodily reactions to sensory stimuli.
J comes before L, just as Body comes before Emotions
Bodily reactions lead to Emotional response
Ataxia
Damage to the cerebellum can result in ataxia, which is characterized by
- slurred speech
- severe tremors
- loss of balance
Cerebellum
The cerebellum is a large structure on the dorsal aspect of the hindbrain. It is involved in the extrapyramidal control of motor activities (e.g., coordination, balance, posture).
Multiple Sclerosis
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a progressive disease of the nervous system that involves a degeneration of the myelin that surrounds nerve fibers in the central nervous system. Common initial symptoms are optic
- neuritis
- motor impairments
- sensory abnormalities
- fatigue
Additional symptoms that arise as the disease progresses include tremors, speech problems, mood symptoms, and cognitive impairment.
Sleep (Stages, Effects of Age)
There are 5 sleep stages based on EEG (electroencephalogram) patterns.
During
Stage 1, alpha waves are replaced by theta waves.
Stage 2 consists primarily of theta waves that are interrupted by bursts of sleep spindles and K complexes.
Stage 3 large, slow delta waves appear.
Stage 4 “deep sleep” consists of delta waves.
Stage 5 is characterized by rapid eye movements (REM) affiliated with dreams.
Sleep patterns vary with age.
Newborns begin with REM sleep which becomes NREM sleep.
This pattern begins to reverse by about 3 months. Total sleep time, stage 4 sleep, and REM sleep all decrease from childhood to adulthood.
Somatic Nervous System
The somatic nervous system (SNS) consists of sensory nerves that carry information from the body’s sense receptors to the CNS and motor nerves that carry information from the CNS to the skeletal muscles. The SNS governs activities that are ordinarily considered voluntary.
Tardive Dyskinesia
Tardive dyskinesia is a potentially irreversible extrapyramidal side effect associated with long-term use of traditional antipsychotic drugs. Symptoms include rhythmical, stereotyped movements of the muscles of the face, limbs, and trunk (similar to Huntington’s chorea). In some cases, symptoms are alleviated by a GABA agonist or by gradual withdrawal of the drug.
Migraine Headache
A migraine headache is a recurrent vascular headache characterized by severe throbbing pain, usually on one side of the head. Triggers include certain foods, alcohol, bright lights, and relaxation following physical or psychological stress. A migraine may be preceded by an aura (classic migraine) or gastrointestinal or other symptoms (common migraine).
Traditional Antipsychotics
Method of Action
These drugs exert their beneficial effects primarily by blocking dopamine receptors, and their effectiveness provides support for the dopamine hypothesis which attributes schizophrenia to overactivity at dopamine receptors.
