Physiological Psych and Psychopharm

Question 1

What does sensation mean?

Answer 1

“The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment?

Question 2

What does perception mean?

Answer 2

“The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information…[which enables] us to recognize meaningful objects and events”

Question 3

What is bottom-up processing?

Answer 3

• one of the ways that sensation and perception are integrated
• Data - driven processing begins with incoming sensory information and continues upward to the brain where it is perceived, interpreted and stored

Question 4

What are the physical stimuli for vision and how are they absorbed (i.e. what cells respond to the stimulus energy)?

Answer 4

• Physical stimuli for vision are light waves
• Absorbed by photoreceptors (light-sensitive receptors) in the retina
• 2 types of photoreceptors: Cones and Rods

Question 5

What is top-down processing?

Answer 5

• one of the ways that sensation and perception are integrated
• Concept-driven processing begins with the brain’s use of preexisting knowledge and expectations to interpret incoming sensory information

Question 6

What are cones and rods (photoreceptors)?

Answer 6

• Cones: responsible for visual acuity (sharpness and precise detail) and perception of color (work best in bright light)
• Rods: important for peripheral vision, more sensitive to light and responsible for vision in dim light (don’t perceive color)

Question 7

What is the Theories of Color Vision?

Answer 7

1: Trichromatic Theory - retina contains 3 types of receptors (cones) - red, blue, green. Initial level of processing in the retina

2: Opponent Process Theory - 3 types of opponent-process cells (red/green, blue/yellow, white/black). Processing beyond the retina. (explains afterimages and red/green and blue/yellow colorblindness)

Question 8

What are the two types of color blindness and what causes them?

Answer 8

1: Red/Green color blindness - most common, most often due to genetic mutation (sometimes injury or disease such as diabetes or multiple sclerosis)
* recessive gene on X chromosome (more common in males because they have one X chromosome from mothers - i.e. one mutated gene) - females need it from both mother and father on both X chromosomes

2: Blue/Yellow color blindness - caused by an autosomal (non-sex) dominant gene (affects males and females equally)

Question 9

What is the ability to perceive depth dependent on?

Answer 9

Binocular and Monocular Cues

• Binocular cues: depend on both eyes - responsible for depth perception of objects relatively close. Include retinal disparity and convergence

(Retinal disparity = our two eyes see objects from different view and closer the object greater the disparity.

Convergence = tendency for eyes to turn inward as an object gets closer and vice versa)

• Monocular cues: depend on one eye and responsible for objects at greater distances. (includes relative size of objects, overlap of objects (interposition), linear perspective, texture gradients, motion parallax (relative motion of objects))

Question 10

What types of stimuli case pain and what is it moderated by?

Answer 10

Stimuli: extreme temperatures, mechanical pressure, electrical stimulation

Perception is moderated by several factors including current emotional state and past experiences with pain

Question 11

What is gate control theory in relation to pain perception?

Answer 11

It’s a major theory of pain perception the distinguishes between two types of nerve fibers in the spinal cord

1 - small unmyelinated fibers transmit pain signals to brain - for small fibers to transmit depends on “gate” that opens by incoming pain signals but closed by transmission of other sensory signals in large fibers and by transmission to brain

2 - larger myelinated fibers transmit other sensory signals

Pain can be relieved by applying heat or cold to affected area or using distraction techniques, guided imagery, hypnosis (i.e. closed gate bc of other sensory information in large fibers)

Question 12

What is synesthesia and what is the most common type?

Answer 12

“a condition in which sensations in one sensory modality spontaneously trigger an associated sensation in another modality”

Most common: grapheme-color synesthesia - numbers or letters are associated with specific colors

• can involve any of the senses
• has a genetic component
• increased cross-activation and cross-connectivity between brain’s sensory areas

Question 13

What is psychophysics?

Answer 13

study of the relationship between the magnitude of physical stimuli and psychological sensations

4 theories for this relationship:
Weber’s law
Fechner’s law
Stevens’s power law
Signal detection theory

Question 14

What is Weber’s Law? (psychophysics)

Answer 14

• Just Noticeable Difference (JND) for a stimulus is a constant proportion (regardless of intensity of stimulus)
• e.g. proportion is always 2% for weight, to notice change, second object has to be 2% lighter or heavier -

Weber’s law applies only to some stimulus and intensities in mid-range

Question 15

What is Fechner’s Law? (psychophysics)

Answer 15

(aka Fechner-Weber Law)
Predicts a logarithmic relationship between psychological sensation and magnitude of physical stimulus

The JND (just noticeable difference) grows to an increasingly greater degree with each linear increment in intensity

Only for some stimuli - better for extreme intensities

Question 16

What is Steven’s Power Law (psychophysics)

Answer 16

(more accurate than Weber and Fechner)

• exponential relationship between psychological sensation and physical stimulus, exponent varies for diff stimuli

(based on research using method of magnitude estimation - subjective)

Question 17

What is Signal Detection Theory (SDT)?

Answer 17

SDT assumes that perception of a stimulus (signal) is the outcome of both sensory and decision-making processes

• always accompanied with some degree of uncertainty caused by presence of background noise (e.g. random neural activity in perceivers perceptual system, levels of motivation and fatigue, distractions in environment)

Decision making is affected by sensitivity and decision criterion:
- Sensitivity – ability to distinguish between stimulus and noise
- Decision Criterion – also decision bias and response bias, willingness or tendency to say that a stimulus is present in ambiguous situations

Greater perceiver’s sensitivity - greater potential for accuracy

(SDT applies to recognition memory, attention, speech perception, clinical diagnosis)

Question 18

In a typical SDT (signal detection theory) experiment what are the four possible decision outcomes?

Answer 18

1 - “hit” stimulus present and the person says it it present

2 - “false alarm” stimulus not present but person says it is

3 - “miss” stimulus present but person says it isn’t

4 - “correct rejection” stimulus not present and person says it isn’t

Data estimates a person’s sensitivity (d’ or d prime) and to estimate effects of a person’s decision criterion (receiver operating characteristic - ROC curve)

ROC = how often false alarms and hits are likely to occur for different levels of sensitivity and how changes in the decision criterion affect the likelihood of false alarms and hits for different levels of sensitivity

Question 19

What are the 8 brain areas responsible for various aspects of memory?

Answer 19

1. Hippocampus
2. Basal Ganglia
3. Cerebellum
4. Supplementary Motor Area
5. Amygdala
6. Prefrontal Cortex
7. Thalamus
8. Mammillary Bodies

Question 20

How does the hippocampus contribute to memory function?

Answer 20

• consolidation of long-term declarative memories (i.e. transfer of declarative memories from short term (working) to long term - and spatial working memory

(found from surgery on patient HM for seizures - bilateral removal of his hippocampus, amygdala and medial temporal lobe - short term memory and procedural memory were intact - deficits in long-term episodic memory and transferring short term to long term memory)

Question 21

How does the basal ganglia, cerebellum and supplementary motor area contribute to memory function?

Answer 21

procedural memories and other implicit memories (unconscious and automatic level)

Damage to these areas cause trouble in learning new skills and performing previously learned skills

Question 22

How does the amygdala contribute to memory function?

Answer 22

• attaching emotions to memories

Damage to amygdala - same level of recall for emotional and non-emotional experiences bc emotions haven’t been attached.

Intact amygdala - better recall for emotional experiences than non-emotional memories

Question 23

How does the prefrontal cortex contribute to memory function?

Answer 23

• working memory aspect of short term memory, prospective memory *

Damage: event-based prospective memory affected more than time-based prospective memory

(Event-based prospective memory: remembering to do something when memory is triggered by an external cue.

Time-based prospective memory: remembering to do something at a certain time without an external cue)

Question 24

How do the thalamus and mammillary bodies contribute to memory function?

Answer 24

Damage to these areas cause anterograde and retrograde amnesia

anterograde amnesia = can’t form new memories
retrograde amnesia = can’t remember past

Question 25

What did learning and memory studies of sea slugs (Aplysia) by Kandel et al. show?

Answer 25

Classical conditioning of reflexes has 2 effects:
1 - short term storage - increase release of serotonin
2 - long term storage - development of new synapses and changes in structure of existing neurons

(Sea slugs were ideal subjects because they have a small number and large size neurons)

Question 26

What is long term potentiation (LTP)?

Answer 26

Occurs in a neuron as a result of rapid and/or high frequency stimulation

Essential in role of learning and memory formation

• Observed in glutamate receptors in hippocampus
• Also in amygdala and entorhinal cortex

Question 27

What does RNA have to do with memory formation?

Answer 27

Changes in synapses associated with formation of long-term memories depends on synthesis of RNA (necessary for protein synthesis)

(drugs that inhibit rna prevent formation of long term memories but not short term)

Question 28

What are the two main categories for the theories of sleep function?

Answer 28

1 - Recovery/restoration theories: sleep is to repair damage that occurs during wakefulness

2 - Adaptive/evolutionary theories: sleep is related to the need to adapt to environmental threats by, for example, conserving energy

Question 29

What are the 5 stages of sleep?

Answer 29

(shown by EEG - electroencephalogram)
Alpha, Theta, Delta waves - sleep spindles - K complexes

Stage 1: transitional between wakefulness and sleep. Low frequency, high amplitude alpha waves (drowsy) replaced with low frequency, low amplitude theta waves

Stage 2: Theta waves continue but are interrupted by sleep spindles (sudden bursts of moderately fast waves) and K-complexes (large slow waves)

Stage 3: Begins after sleep for 20 mins - low freq. High amplitude Delta Waves

Stage 4: Delta waves continue but higher amplitude (stage 3 and 4 are deep sleep, slow-wave sleep)

REM/Stage 5: after about 80-90 mins, similar to stage 1 waves - paradoxical sleep - active brain and physiological arousal while muscle groups are nearly paralyzed and difficult to arouse. (most dreams in REM - vivid, bizarre, detailed vs. non-REM dreams)

Question 30

What is the general flow of sleep stages?

Answer 30

Stage 1 to REM
Person cycles through non-REM and REM sleep stages - as night progresses duration of REM sleep increases and duration of Stage 3 and 4 decreases.

Question 31

What are typical changes in sleep throughout development / the lifespan?

Answer 31

• Newborns infants sleep longer - more time in active REM sleep - begin the sleep period with active sleep and followed with quiet/non-REM sleep
• Newborn sequence reverses around 3 months - by 6 months all four stages on non-rem sleep appear
• Sleep duration decreases from 14-16 hours in infancy to 8 hours in adulthood
• Older adult sleep: same amount of sleep, harder time falling asleep, less time in deep sleep (esp. stage 4) - experience more evenly distributed REM sleep throughout the night, wake up more, and advance sleep phase (circadian phase advance - sleep earlier, wake up earlier)

Question 32

What are the five main theories of emotion?

Answer 32

1. James-Lange Theory
2. Cannon-Bard Theory
3. Schachter and Singer’s Two Factor Theory (Cognitive Arousal Theory)
4. Lazarus’s Cognitive Appraisal Theory
5. LeDoux’s Two-System Theory

Question 33

What is the James-Lange Theory of emotion?

Answer 33

Exposure to emotionally salient stimulus causes a physiological reaction which is then perceived as an emotion (experience of emotion follow physiological arousal - rather than precedes it)

Facial Feedback Hypothesis: facial expressions associated with specific emotions initiate physiological changes (e.g. mimicking a facial expression associated with a specific emotion causes us to experience the emotion - smiling makes us happy)

Question 34

What is the Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion?

Answer 34

Emotion and physiological arousal occur together when an environmental stimulus causes the thalamus to simultaneously send signals to cerebral cortex and sympathetic nervous system

All emotions involve similar physiological arousal (different from James Lange theory)

Question 35

What is Schachter and Singer’s Two Factor theory of emotion?

Answer 35

aka cognitive arousal theory

Emotion is the result of physiological arousal followed by an attribution (cognitive label) for the arousal - difference in emotions are due to attributions that are also dependent on external cues

(similar to cannon-bard - all emotions have similar physiological arousal)

(based on epinephrine studies - also found the misattribution of arousal effect when cause of arousal is unknown or ambiguous)

• This theory also led to research on the Excitation Transfer Theory: physical arousal elicited by one event can be transferred to and intensify arousal by a later unrelated event.

Question 36

What are the 3 assumptions of the excitation transfer theory?

Answer 36

1 - physical arousal associated with emotions decays slowly and can continue for some time following the event

2 - Residual arousal caused by one event can intensify arousal cause by subsequent unrelated event

3 - people often have limited insight into the causes of their physical arousal and consequently misattribute their intense arousal solely to the subsequent unrelated event

(e.g. residual arousal from sexual excitation can intensify subsequent anger, sadness, altruism. residual excitation from fear can intensify subsequent sexual attraction and joy)

Question 37

What is Lazarus’s cognitive appraisal theory of emotion?

Answer 37

Differences in emotional reactions are due to appraisal of the events. (contrast to other theories: physiological arousal follows cognitive appraisal)

3 Types of Appraisal:
1. Primary appraisal - evaluating event as irrelevant, benign-positive or stressful. If deemed stressful - then determines if it’s a threat, challenge, or harm/loss

2. Secondary appraisal - identifying coping options and likelihood that options will adequately deal with event
3. Reappraisal - monitors situation and changes primary and/or secondary appraisals

Question 38

What is LeDoux’s Two-System Theory of emotion?

Answer 38

(focuses on fear but also relevant to other emotions)

Fear consists of 2 separate but interacting system that both respond to threatening stimuli:
1. Subcortical system (survival system; low road): Reacts quickly and automatically to sensory info about threatening stimulus with physiological and defensive behavioral responses. Amygdala is major component.

2. Cortical system (conscious emotional system; high road): processes information from senses, subcortical system and episodic and semantic memory using relevant cognitive processes (e.g. attention, working memory, decision-making) and generates conscious feeling of fear when stimulus is determined threatening and warrants a fear response

(other theories typically refer to the “fear system” as innate and primarily subcortical regions)

Question 39

What was the papez circuit (1937 research linking emotions to brain regions)?

Answer 39

Interconnected structures including the hippocampus, mammillary bodies, thalamus and cingulate gyrus.

Subsequent research found that it was more connected to memory than emotion

Question 40

What are three main brain regions connected to emotion?

Answer 40

1. Cerebral cortex
2. amygdala
3. hypothalamus

Question 41

What role does the cerebral cortex play in emotion?

Answer 41

Both hemispheres play different roles in mediation of emotions

Areas in left (dominant) hemisphere mediate happiness and other positive emotions - damage produces “catastrophic reaction” which involves depression, anxiety, fear and paranoia

Right (non-dominant) hemisphere mediates sadness and negative emotions - damage produces “indifference reaction” involves inappropriate indifference and/or euphoria

Question 42

What role does the amygdala play with emotion?

Answer 42

• Recognizing fear in facial expressions
• Attaching emotions to memories
• Evaluating incoming information to determine emotional significance and then mediating the emotional reaction
• electrical stimulation of amygdala can produce fear or rage response
• bilateral lesions can cause a loss of fear response without a loss of other emotional responses

Question 43

What role does the hypothalamus with emotion?

Answer 43

Regulates physical signs of emotion through its communication with the autonomic nervous system and pituitary gland

Bilateral lesions can produce rage
Electrical stimulation can cause pleasure and fear

Question 44

What is the general adaptation syndrome for stress (Selye 1976)?

Answer 44

Body’s response to all types of stress is the same and involves 3 stages:

1 - alarm reaction stage: increased activity of sympathetic nervous system, gives energy to respond with a fight or flight reaction

2 - resistance stage: if stressor continues, some physiological functions return to normal while cortisol stays elevated to help body maintain a high level of energy to continue coping with stress

3 - exhaustion stage: if stressor still isn’t resolved, physiological processes begin to break down

Question 45

What is the allostatic load model for stress?

Answer 45

(in contrast to general adaption syndrome - response is dependent of type of stress and person’s genetic make up and previous experiences)

Brain determines what is threatening and therefore stressful and determines physiological and behavioral responses to stress (brain regions: amygdala, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex)

Allostasis = processes that allow body to achieve stability by adapting to change

Allostatic state = (active physiological reactions) result in allostatic state that can be maintained for a limited period of time without having adverse consequences

Allostatic load = allostatic state due to chronic stress and can produce wear-and-tear on body and brain

Allostatic overload = when allostatic load continues for days, weeks or longer

Question 46

What is a cerebrovascular accident (CVA)?

Answer 46

aka stroke - sudden interruption of blood flow to the brain that causes a loss in neurological functioning

leading risk factors: hypertension, atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), heart disease, diabetes, cigarette smoking, heavy alcohol use, obesity, older age, male, African American, family hx of stroke

2 main types: ischemic stroke (thrombotic or embolic) and hemorrhagic stroke (intracerebral or subarachnoid)

Question 47

What is an ischemic stroke - thrombotic and embolic?

Answer 47

• Ischemic stroke - blockage in a cerebral artery
  – Thrombotic - clot in an artery in the brain
  – Embolic - clot developed in heart or elsewhere in the body and traveled to the brain

Transient Ischemic Stroke (TIA) - blockage in artery for less than 5 minutes that causes temporary symptoms

Question 48

What is a hemorrhagic stroke - intracerebral or subarachnoid?

Answer 48

Hemorrhagic - bleeding from a rupture in a cerebral artery within the brain
Intracerebral - within the brain
Subarachnoid - space between brain and membrane that covers the brain

Question 49

What are the 3 types of cerebral arteries that could be involved in a stroke and their symptoms?

Answer 49

1. middle cerebral artery: most often involved in stroke. Contralateral sensory loss, hemiparesis (weakness), hemiplegia (paralysis), homonymous hemianopsia (visual field loss), dysarthria (slurred speech), aphasia (when dominant hemi affected) or apraxia and contralateral neglect (when nondominant hemi affected)
2. posterior (back) cerebral artery: Contralateral sensory loss, hemiparesis (weakness), homonymous hemianopsia (visual field loss), dysarthria (slurred speech), nausea and vomiting and memory loss
3. anterior (front) cerebral artery: Contralateral sensory loss, hemiparesis (weakness esp in leg), impaired insight and judgment, mutism, apathy, confusion, urinary incontinence

Question 50

What are some cognitive symptoms of traumatic brain injuries (TBI)?

Answer 50

• some degree of anterograde and retrograde amnesia

(anterograde aka post traumatic amnesia - duration is a good predictor of recovery from other symptoms)

(retrograde amnesia - recent long term memories impacted more than remote memories - when lost memories begin to return, more distant come back first)

Question 51

What are emotional, behavioral, and physiological symptoms of a TBI?

Answer 51

• nausea, vomiting, headaches, sleep disturbances (hypersomnia, insomnia), depression, irritability, seizures and aprosodia

aprosodia = inability to express or understand prosody (variations in rhythm, pitch, timing, loudness of speech to convey emotional info)

Post Traumatic Seizures (PTS) = if within one week after TBI can often be treated with medicine. more than one week they become post traumatic epilepsy (PTE) can be treated with vagus nerve stimulation, responsive neurostimulation or surgery

Seizures from TBIs are linked to temporal lobe and hippocampal atrophy

Recovery from TBIs usually in the first 3 months - year. indefinite symptoms for moderate or severe TBIs

Question 52

What is Huntington’s Disease? (cause and symptoms)

Answer 52

a neurodegenerative disorder - affective, cognitive and motor symptoms. Affective sx come first - then cognitive and motor symptoms

• caused by an autosomal dominant gene (offspring have 50% chance)
• abnormalities in basal ganglia and levels of GABA and glutamate
• onset typically between 30 - 50 y/o

*Affective symptoms: depression, mood swings
*Cognitive symptoms: short term memory loss, impaired concentration and judgement
*Motor symptoms: clumsiness, fidgeting, involuntary movements, facial grimacing, athetosis, chorea
[athetosis - nonrhythmic, slow, writhing movements] [chorea - involuntary rapid jerky movements in arms, legs, trunk.]
Eventually trouble speaking and swallowing and could met criteria for neurocognitive disorders

Question 53

What is parkinson’s disease and what are causes and symptoms?

Answer 53

Neurodegenerative disorder with prominent motor symptoms (interaction of genetic factors, environmental risk factors)

Excessive glutamate activity in basal ganglia - progression of parkinson

• loss of dopamine-producing cells in substantia nigra and basal ganglia - motor symptoms
• degeneration of norepinephrine neurons in locus coeruleus - non motor symptoms (depression, cognitive deficits, sleep disturbances)

ApoE gene - increased risk for neurocog due to parkinsons (also alzheimers, lewy bodies and vascular neurocog disorder)

What are the 4 primary motor symptoms:
1 - tremor when muscles are at rest begins in hands, includes pill rolling
2 - impaired balance and coordination
3 - rigidity in limbs and trunk
4 - slowed voluntary movement (bradykinesia) - mask like facial expression and decreased eye blink frequency

Question 54

What are treatment options of parkinsons?

Answer 54

• no sure - only alleviate symptoms temporarily in early stages
• L-dopa (levodopa) - increase dopamine levels
• deep brain stimulation (DBS) - reduce motor symptoms (electrodes in brain and pulse generator in chest - when turned on by patient sends electrical impulse to brain) (can also be used for intractable OCD)

Question 55

What are focal onset seizures? Two main subtypes?

Answer 55

focal onset seizures begin in localized area in one cerebral hemisphere and affect one size of body (may spread to other areas)

focal onset aware seizures (simple partial seizures) - don’t affect consciousness

focal onset impaired aware seizures (complex partial seizures) - change consciousness and begin with aura

Question 56

Symptoms of focal onset seizures in temporal, frontal, parietal and occipital lobe seizures?

Answer 56

1 - Temporal: (most common - may begin with aura including strange taste or odor, rising sensation in stomach, sudden intense fear or other emotion, deja vu, jamais vu) sweating, dilated pupils, tachycardia (other autonomic symptoms) - lip smacking, repeated chewing or swallowing, fidgeting, picking at clothing (other automatisms) - trouble speaking and comprehension (stress often triggers)

2 - Frontal: (second most common - often during sleep and less than 30 seconds) - kicking, rocking, bicycle pedaling or other repetitive movements, abnormal body posturing, explosive screams or laughter, trouble speaking with comprehension, autonomic symptoms

3 - Parietal: tingling, numbness, pain and other abnormal sensations, feelings of movement (floating), distortions in body image

4 - Occipital: rapid eye blinking, eyelid flutter, involuntary eye movements, flashing or stationary bright lights, multi-colored circular patterns or other simple visual hallucinations, partial blindness, impaired visual acuity

Question 57

What are generalized onset seizures?

Answer 57

Seizures that affect both hemispheres:

(1) generalized onset motor [aka tonic-clonic and grand mal seizures] - include a change in consciousness and include a tonic phase (stiffening of muscles in face and limb) followed by clonic phase (jerky rhythmic movements in arms and legs) - after regaining consciousness, depressed, confused, fatigued, no memory of seizure

and

(2) generalized onset non-motor [absence seizures and petit mal seizures] brief loss of consciousness with a blank or absent stare, for some eyes turn upwards and eyelids flutter

Question 58

What are migraines and treatment?

Answer 58

2 types: 1 - migraine headaches with aura/classic migraines, 2 - migraine headaches without aura/common migraines

Triggered by emotional stress or relaxation after stress, abrupt weather changes, alcohol weather changes, alcohol, certain foods, missing a meal

Intensity worsened by bending forward and by walking or other routine physical activity

Cause unknown - linked to low level serotonin

Treatments = nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, ergot alkaloids, SSRIs, SSRI agonists, beta blockers, thermal biofeedback and autogenic training

Question 59

What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism?

Answer 59

Hyper (thyroidism): hyper-secretion of thyroid hormones. increased rate of metabolism, increased appetite with weight loss, accelerated heart rate, elevated body temp, heat intolerance, insomnia, emotional lability, reduced attention span.

Hypo (thyroidism): hypo-secretion of thyroid hormones. decreased rate of metabolism, reduced appetite with weight gain, slowed hear rate, lower body temp, cold intolerance, depression, lethargy, decreased libido, confusion, impaired concentration and memory

Question 60

What are the pituitary gland and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) connected to?

Answer 60

ADH aka vasopressin and responsible for the amount of water excreted in urine.

Low ADH = central diabetes insipidus
sx: low blood pressure, frequent and excessive urination, extreme thirst, dehydration, constipation, weight loss

Question 61

What does the pancreas releasing too much insulin result in?

Answer 61

hypoglycemina: Too much insulin leads to decreased blood glucose levels
(also caused by high dose of insulin or diabetic medication, skipping meals, exercising more than usual, excessive alcohol consumption, severe hepatitis or cirrhosis of the liver, and adrenal and pituitary gland disorders)

symptoms: nervousness, shaking, sweating, hunger, dizziness, irritability, confusion or disorientation, weakness, sleepiness, pallor, blurred vision, tingling or numb lips and tongue, headaches, fast or irregular heartbeat, clumsiness, seizures, loss of consciousness

Question 62

What does the pancreas releasing too little insulin result in?

Answer 62

Diabetes mellitus

Type 1: autoimmune disease that destroys insulin-producing cells in the pancreas.

Type 2: (more common) when pancreas produces an insufficient amount of insulin or the body is unable to use the insulin produced by the pancreas

symptoms: extreme hunger and thirst, frequent urination, unexplained weight loss, fatigue, blurred vision, numbness or tingling in hands or feet, frequent infections

risk factors: genetic predisposition, overweight, sedentary lifestyle, over 45 years, native american/african american/latino

Question 63

What are the three main categories of neurological diagnostic tests?

Answer 63

1: Electroencephalography (EEG) - measures brain electrical activity in a specific area of brain not a neuron (Neuropsychiatric EEG-Based Assessment Aid NEBA can be used to diagnose ADHD for 6-17 years)

2: Structural neuroimaging techniques - CT scan, MRI, DTI (diffusion tensor imaging)
CT and MRI used to identify abnormalities in the density of the brain (MRI produces more detail, harder to get)
DTI is MRI based and assesses structural integrity of white matter tracts or myelinated axons - abnormalities in diffusion of water molecules along the axons

3: Functional neuroimaging techniques - assessing glucose or oxygen consumption PET (positron emission tomography) scan, (single photon emission computed tomography) SPECT and functional MRI fMRI. PET and SPECT both use radioactive tracers