Physio Handout Flashcards
Powerhouse of the cell.
Mitochondria
Organelle for Protein synthesis.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Organelle for synthesis of lipids; contains oxidades, catalases; for detoxification.
Smooth Endoplastic Reticulum
Contains lysozyme, lysoferritin, and acud hydrolase.
Lysosomes
Only substance modified in the RER, not in the Golgi.
Collagen
Moves substances from center to periphery of the cell; involved in Anterograde axonal transport.
Kinesin
Moves substance from the periphery to the cebter of the cell; involved in Retrograde axonal transport.
Dynein
Provides structural support component for the cell movement.
F-actin
Substances that passes throught the water clefts/pores in the membranes.
Water
Glucose
Amino acids
Junctional complex that is disk-shaped for firm intercellular adhesions.
Macula adherens a.k.a. Desmosomes
Junctional complex for communication that serve as regulated cytoplasmic bridge for sharing of small molecules between cells.
Gap junctions
Ring shaped junctional complex that increases surface area contact, in epithelial cells & endothelial cells; intercalated disks of cardiac muscles.
Zonula Adherens
Functional unit of a gap junction.
Connexon
Subunit of connexon.
Connexin
Connexin disorder involving Cx32.
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease
Main cation in ECF.
Na
Main cation in ICF.
K+
Hallmark of carrier mediated transport.
✔Stereospecificity
✔Saturation
✔Competetion
Passive, Downhill, Non carrier mediated transport.
Simple diffusion
Passive, Downhill, Carrier mediated
Facilitated diffusion
Active, Uphill, Carrier mediated, uses atp
Primary Active Transport
Active, Uphill, Carrier mediated, uses Na gradient
Secondary Active Transport
Gases, Alcohol, Steroid hormones transport.
Simple diffusion
Transport process of GLUT-1,2,3,4,5
Facilitated diffusion
Transport process of SGLT-1, SGLT-2, Na-K-2Cl
Secondary Active Transport
Transport Na-K-ATPase Pump, Proton Pump
Primary Active Transport
Exhibited only by excitable cells (neurons, muscle cells).
Action potential
Cells that produces CSF
Ependymal cells
Macrophage of the brain
Microglia
Regulates ECF ions and NTs; gives mechanical support; forms BBB
Astrocytes
Creates myelin in the CNS
Oligodendrocytes
Creates myelin in the PNS
Schwann cells
Brain tumors from non-mature neurons
Neuroblastoma
Retinoblastoma
“Receiving” portion of the neuron for NTs
Dendrites
Where action potential in a neuron actually starts
Axon hillock
initial segment
Function of myelin sheath
Insulator
Unmyelinated portion of the axon with highest concentration of Na channels
Node of Ranvier
Branches of the axons
Neural fibrils
Terminal portion of a neural fibril that contains NT-containing vesicles
Axon Terminal / Boutons / End-Feet
Space between 2 neurons
Synaps
Opening of Na-ACtivation Gates (Na influx)
Depolarization
Closure of Na-Inactivation Gates + Opening of K Channels (K Efflux)
Repolarization
Membrane potential where AP is inevitable
Threshold
Portion of AP where MP is Positive
Overshoot
Portion of AP where MP is
Undershoot
No AP can be elicited despite increased stimulus
Absolute Refractory Period
More inward current needed to generate AP
Relative Refractory Period
Causes activation of Synaptic vesicles
Ca Voltage Gated Channels
Death of Axon Distal to the site of injury
Anterograde degeneration
Changes to soma after axon is transected
Axonal reaction / Chromatolysis
Principle that in spinal cord the dorsal roots are sensory and ventral roots are motor.
Bell-Magendie law
Found in NMJ, Sympa and Para preganglionic neurons; Para and some Sympa Post-ganglionic neurons
Acetylcholine
- Decreased in Alzheimer’s and Huntington
- Found in basal ganglia, large pyramidal cells of motor cortex, giganto cellular neurons of the REA
- maybe excitatory or inhibitory
Triggers REM sleep
Acetylcholine
Found in locus ceruleus of pons, pre ganglionic of sympa; for arousal/wakefulness
Norepinephrine
Secreted mainly by the adrenal medulla
Epinephrine
Found in substantia nigra, known as PIF in the hypothalamus; for fine tuning movements
Dopamine
D1 receptors: activates adenylate cyclase using Gs proteins;
D2 receptors: inhibits adenlylate cyclase using Gi protein
- decreased in Parkinson
- increased in Schizoprenia
Found in the median raphe of the brainstem, from tryptophan, converted to melatonin; low levels association with depression
Serotonin
From Arginine, not pre-formed; inhibitory NT
Nitric oxide
Found in spinal interneurons; main inhibitory NT
Glycine
- Increase Cl influx
Found in the brain (e.g. spiny neurons of the striatum, Purkinje cells of the cerebellum)
GABA
- main inhibitory NT, from glutamate
- inc Cl influx (GABA-A) or K Efflux (GABA-B)
- responsible for coordinated movements
Excitatory NT in the CNS; activate NMDA receptors
Glutamate
- involved in fast pain
- activate Kainate, AMPA receptors
Inhibits neurons in the brain involved in pain receptors
Opioid peptides
*enkephalins, endorphins, dynorphins
Involved in slow pain
Substance P
Originates in te superior colliculus of the midbrain, projects to the contralateral cervical spinal cord to control the head and eye movements
Tectospinal Tract
Corticospinal tract neurons that innervates spinal motor neurons, but they can also include brainstem neurons that control spinal motor neurons
Upper motor neuron
Area in the brain for hearing and balance
Temporal lobe
Area in the brain for vision
Occipital lobe
Area in the brain for judgement, calculation, personality
Frontal lobe
Area in the brain for motor
Frontal lobe
Area in the brain for somatosensory
Parietal lobe
Area in the brain for Sex, Thirst, Appetite, Body clock, Temperature
Hypothalamus
Area in the brain for Coughing, Vomiting, Swallowing; Respiratory and Vasomotor center
Medulla
Area where Apneustic and Pneumotaxic center is located
Pons
Micturition center is located
Pons
Area in the brain for Behavior, Emotions, Motivation
Limbic system
Location: Broca’s Area?
Opercular / Triangular part of the Inferior Frontal lobe
BA 45
Location: Wernicke’s Area?
Superior temporal lobe
BA 21, 22
Contributes to balance; Silent area of the brain
Cerebellum
Communication between corresponding areas of the cerebral hemispheres.
Corpus callosum
Where memory is stored
Throughout the brain
esp TEMPORAL lobe
Conversion of short term memory to long term memory.
Consolidation
Cerebral cortex order neurons.
1st order: Initiation
2nd order: Interpretation
3rd order: Integration
Output pathway from reward and punishment centers; Lesions here will produce ANTEROGRADE amnesia
Hippocampus
- create memory based on experience
- processor
Help search memory storehouses; lesions will produce RETROGRADE amnesia
Thalamus
*relay station for almost all sensations
Can see words but readily grasp meaning despite normal intelligence.
Dyslexia
Site of Pathology of Dyslexia
Dominant Temporoparietal area
*secondary visual area
Disease caused by a lesion on the arcuate fasciculus connecting the broca’s and wernicke’s area.
Conduction aphasia
Sympathectomy effect
Orthostatic hypotension
Person punched in the epigastric area developing hypotension, bradycardia, weak pulses, what reflex is seen?
Vasovagal reflex
Decrease in HR upon compression of the eyeballs due to connection between CN VI and CN X.
Oculocardic reflex
EEG wave: alert; REM
Beta wave
- active dreaming
- 1st 90 minutes of sleeps
- difficult to arouse
EEG wave: relaxed
Alpha wave
EEG wave: deep sleep
Delta wave
Substance suspected to induce sleep
Muramyl peptide
Percentage of REM sleep in newborns
50%
- 25% in adults
Master clock
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Regulates master clock
Pineal gland
Superior cervical ganglia, Tryptophan, Epinephrine, Pineal Hydroxyidole-O-methyltransferase would increase
Melatonin secretion
Bilateral synchronous symmetric “spike-and-wave” discharge on EEG.
Absence seizure
Lesion on this area of the brain will result to Narcolepsy.
Hippocampus
Hypothalamic nucleus associated with temperature regulation.
Anterior nucleus
Synthesizes Vasopressin
Supraoptic nuclei in Hypothalamus
Synthesizes Oxytocin
Paraventricular nuclei (Magnocellular cells)
Responsible for Appetite
Lateral nuclei
Responsible for Satiety
Ventromedial nuclei
Responsible for Dissipation of heat
Anterior nuclei
Responsible for Conservation of heat
Posterior nuclei
Reward center
Medial Forebrain Bundle
Punishment center
Central Gray Area or Aqueduct of Sylvius
Responsible for social inhibition
Amygdala
CSF produced per day
500 mL
*150 mL in the brain
Acute effect of hypoxia begin at ___ ft.
12, 000 feet
Seizures begin at ____ ft.
18, 000 feet
Death at ____ ft.
23, 000 feet
5 Mechanism of Acclimatization of Low PO2.
1) Increased RR-> RAL->Renal compensation-> normal pH
2) Polycythemia via EPO-> Inc 2,3 BPG-> shift to R of O2-Hgb dissociation curve
3) Inc diffusing capacity for O2
4) Angiogenesis via VEGF
5) inc mitochondria
What is the cardiac reserve?
400% - 600%
Effects of testosterone on athletic performance.
- increase muscle size
- muscle strength
- muscle aggression
Maximum allowable negative G force
- 20G
* positive: +6G to +10G
Most common symptom of decompression sickness.
“Bends”
First symptom at 120 feet below sea level.
Joviality
Capillary network in Cortical nephrons
Peritubular arteries
*contains interstitial cells that produce EPO
Capillary network in Juxtamedullary nephrons
Vasa recta
- counter-current exchanger
- maintain the gradient
- remove waste
Normal capacity of urinary bladder
600 mL
Urge to urinates: >150 mL (25% filled)
Reflex contraction: >300 mL (50% filled)
Detrussor muscle: responsible for contraction, triggered by distention
Two major parts of nephron
1) Renal or Malphigian Corpuscle
2) Renal tubular system: PCT, LH, DT, CD
Modified cells capable of phagocytosis in between glomerulus.
Mesangial cells
“Counter current multiplier”
Loop of Henle
Directly proportional to pressure difference between renal artery and renal vein; inversely proportional to resistance of renal vasculature.
Renal blood flow
*22% of CO
vasodilation: Increase RBF
vasoconstriction: Decrease RBF
Estimated by PAH clearance
Renal plasma flow
RPF= [RBF x (1-Hemtocrit)]
Normal GFR
125 ml/min or 180L/day
GFR= Filtration fraction x RPF GFR= Filtration fraction x [RBF x (1-Hemtocrit)]
Filtered; NOT reabsorbed; secreted
Highest clearance
Estimates RPF & RBF
Paraamino-hippuric acid (PAH)
Filtered; NOT reabsorbed; NOT secreted
Estimates GFR
Inulin
Filtered; Reabsorbed; NOT secreted
Glucose
Activated before RAAS
Baroreceptor reflex
Sense BP changes
Macula densa
*detects changes in sodium concentration
JG (granular cells) cells secrete
Renin
Maintains (preserves) normal GFR
Angiotensin II
Inc Na reabsorption
Inc K secretion
Inc H secretion
Aldosterone
Side effects of High aldosterone levels.
- HPN
- Hypokalemia
- Metabolic alkalosis
(Conn syndrome)
Substances start to appear in the urine.
Renal threshold
- some nephrons exhibit saturation
- 200mg/dL for glucose
All excess substance appear in the urine.
Renal Transport Maximum
- all nephrons exhibit saturation
- 375 mg/dl for glucose
3 urinary buffers
NaHCO3
NaHPO4
NH4
Location of Thirst center
ANteroventral wall of the 3rd Ventricle and Pre-optic nuclei
Causes 0.5F increase in temp during ovulation
Progesterone
Reabsorb Na; Secrete K
Principal cells in late DT
Reabsorb K; Secrete H
Intercalated cells in late DT
First step in urine formation
Glomerular filtration
Effect on GFR: Afferent Vasodilation
Increase
Effect on GFR: Efferent Vasodilation
Decrease
Effect on GFR: Afferent Vasoconstriction
Decrease GFR
Effect on GFR: Moderate Efferent Vasoconstriction
Increase
Effect on GFR: Severe Efferent Vasoconstriction
Decrease
Detects movement of objects and low frequency vibration; found in glabrous skin
Meissner’s corpuscle
Fast adapting Type 1
For continuous touch; grouped into Iggo dome receptors
Merkel’s disk
Slow adapting Type 1
Detects movement of object in skin
Hair-end organ
For pressure; for heavy and prolonged touch; found in deep skin, internal tissues and joint capsules
Ruffini’s end organs
Slow adapting Type 2
For high frequency vibration; onion-like structure
Pacinian corpuscle
Fast adapting Type 2
2 point discrimination
Merkel’s disk (SA 1): stationary
Meissner’s corpuscle (FA1): moving
Order neuron of sensory pathways location
1st: dorsal root / cranial nerve ganglia
2nd: spinal cord / brainstem
3rd: thalamus
4th: sensory cortex
Action potential in retina is due to:
Hyper-polarization
How is color blindness transmitted?
X-linked recessive
20x more common in males
Substance that directly stimulates the rods
Metarhodopsin II
Receptors connected to bipolar cells
Center of Receptive field
Receptors connected to horizontal cells
Surround of Receptive field
Respond to Bars of Light with correct position & orientation
Simple Cells
Respond to moving bars or edges of light
Complex cells
Respond to lines with particular length and curves/angles
Hypercomplex cells
Absorb stray light and prevent them from scattering;
Site for Macular Degeneration & Retinal Detachment
Pigment epithelium
Retinal Glial cells that maintain internal geometry
Mueller cells
Interneurons that connects rods & cones;
Contrast Detectors
Bipolar cells
Retinal output cells whose axons from the optic nerve
Ganglion cells
P cells: Color, Form, Fine details
M cells: Illumination, Movement
W cells: Unknown function
Cutting of this structure causes ipsilateral total blindness.
optic nerve
Cutting of this structure causes bitemporal hemianopsia.
optic chiasm
Cutting of this structure causes contralateral homonymous hemianopsia.
optic tract
geniculocalcarine tract
Cutting of this structure causes contralateral superior homonymous quadrantinopsia.
Meyer’s loop (temporal lobe);
Inferior calcarine fissure (with macular sparing)
Cutting of this structure causes contralateral inferior homonymous quadrantinopsia.
Parietal lobe
Superior calcarine fissure (with macular sparing)
Most common occupational related disease
Occupational Hearing loss
*85dB-maximum tolerable loudness
Causes pain, and triggers attenuation reflex
> 120dB
*stapedius and tensor tympani contract respectively
Respond to high-frequency sounds;
Hair cells near BASE (oval and round windows)
Respond to low-frequency sounds;
Hair cells near APEX (helicotrema)
Frequency analyzer;
Membrane that separates scala tympani and media.
Basilar membrane
*where Organ of Corti is
Function of Pinna
Sound collection & localization
Function of Middle ear
Impedance matching
Connects Outer ear and Middle ear that equalizes pressure.
Eustachian tube
For linear & sometimes Angular acceleration/Deceleration
Utricle & Saccule
For Angular acceleration/Deceleration alone
Semicircular canals
For Vertical Acceleration
Saccule
*tip links in hair cell: involved in regulation of disotrition-activated ion channels
For Horizontal Acceleration
Utricle
Caused by continued movement of endolymph in the semicircular canals, with consequent bending of the cupula and stimulation of hair cells.
Post rotatory Nystagmus
Masks Background noise
Attenuation / Auditory reflex
Max allowable workplace loudness x 8hours
85-90 dB
Loudness causing pain
120 dB
Location: Sweet
Tip of the Tongue
Location: Umami
Tip of the Tongue
Location: Bitter
Back of the Tongue
Location: Salty, Sour
Sides of the Tongue
Nerve fiber used by Smell
Typa C (slow)
Taste with lowest stimulation threshold
Bitter
Unpleasant perception of taste (metallic, salty, foul, rancid).
Dysgeusia / Parageusia
Produces ptyalin
Parotid gland (serous)
Sites of production of RBCs in order.
1) Yolk sac / AGM (3rd week): 1st trimester
2) Liver (3rd month), Spleen: 2nd-3rd
3) Bone marrow: after birth
Main site: liver
Condition when liver still produce RBCs even after birth.
Extramedullary hematopoiesis
Derived from megkaryocytes that lasts for 7-10 days;
forms initial thrombus
Platelets
Lasts for 120 days; relies on ANAEROBIC glycolysis.
RBC
*biconcave due to spectrin
Derived from B-cells, secrete Ig
Plasma cells
Cells involved in INNATE Immunity (“security of the cell”).
Neutrophils Macrophages Dendritic cells Natural Killer cells Complement proteins: C3b, C3a, C5a, C5b-C9
Involved in ADAPTIVE Immunity; specific
T-cells
B-cells
Antibodies
Complement proteins: C3b, C3a, C5a, C5b-C9
Most common blood cell;
Highly lobulated nucleus;
Neutrophils
Least common blood cell;
Bilobulated/trilobulated, blue
Basophils
Cell that is bilobulated, pink
Eosinophils
Largest blood cell;
Eccentricaly placed nucleus
Monocytes
Involved in adaptive immunity;
round, densely stained nucleus with a pale basophilic, non-granular cytoplasm
Lymphocytes
Most abundant immunoglobulin;
Predominant antibody in secondary responses;
only able to cross the placenta
IgG
- dimeric
- smallest
Main immunoglobulin concerned with primary immune response; present in uncommitted B cells
IgM
- pentameric
- largest, with 10 binding sites
Main immunoglobulin in secretions including EXOCRINE secretions
IgA
Antibody mediated allergies and hypersensitivity
IgE
Acts as an antigen receptor when present on the surface of certain B lymphocytes
IgD
Complement protein that acts as “molecular vetsin” (Opsonization).
C3b
Complement protein that induces inflammation (Anaphylatoxin).
C3a, C4a, C5a
Complement protein chemotactic to WBCs
C5a
Complement protein in membrane attack complex (form holes in the cell membranes)
C5b-C9
Causes increased bone marrow RBC production in response to hypoxia.
EPO
Last cell capable of mitosis
Polychromatic erythroblast / Pro rubricyte
Sign due to reduced hemoglobin concentration of the blood in the capillaries >5g/dL.
Cyanosis
Lifespan of:
- Reticulocyte
- Adult RBC
- Fetal RBC
- Reticulocyte: 2 days
- Adult RBC: 120 days
- Fetal RBC: 90 days
Lifespan of
- Granulocytes
- Monocytes
- Lymphocytes
- Granulocytes: 4-8 hrs in blood; 4-5 days in tissues
- Monocytes: 10-20 hrs in blood; months in tissues
- Lymphocytes: weeks to months
Movement of neutrophils and macrophages towards a CHEMICAL signal.
Chemotaxis
Movement out of the circulatory system and into the site of injury.
Diapedesis
Most common type of Graft.
Allograft
Autograft: same person = 0% risk of rejection
Isograft / Syngeneic: among identical twins = 0% risk of rejection
Allograft: same species; imminent risk of rejection
Xenograft: between species
Endothelial molecule for Rolling.
P Selectin: Neutrophils, Monocytes, T-lymphocytes
Glycam-1: Neutrophils, Monocytes
Endothelial molecule for Adhesion.
VCAM-1: Eosinophils, Monocytes, Lymphocytes
Endothelial molecule for Rolling & Adhesion.
E Selectin: Neutrophils, Monocytes, Lymphocytes
Endothelial molecule for Adhesion, Arrest, and Transmigration.
ICAM-1: Neutrophils, Monocytes, Lymphocytes
Mediated by local myogenic spasm and endothelin 1.
Vascular constriction
Primary Hemostasis / Formation of Loose Platelet Plug
Platelet ADHESION: mediated by vWF (bv) and Gpb1 (platelets)
Platelet ACTIVATION: change shape
Platelet AGGREGATION: mediated by fibrinogen and Gp2b-3a of platelets
Vasodilate in response to hypoxia to provide O2.
Systemic arterioles
Lowest pressure; 0-4 mmHg
Right Atrium
Shunts in Fetus
Ductus venosus: liver
Ductus arteriosus: PA and aorta
Foramen ovale: RA & LA
Control conduits; main determinant of TPR
Arterioles
- may rapidly dilate or constrict
- (+) greatest resistance
a1: constriction
b2: dilation (relax) - predominant contributor of TPR
Highest pressure individual basis; stressed volume
Arteries
Highest total cross sectional area in the body; endothelial cell only
Capillaries
A.k.a. Capacitance vessels;with one way valves;
reservoir of blood
Veins
Reynold’s number for Laminar flow
<2000
Laminar flow: streamlined; highest at the center, lower at the walls
Reynold’s number for Turbulent flow
> 2000
Turbulent flow: disorderly; vessel narrowing, anemia
Marker for Cardiac function
Ejection Fraction
EF= SV/EDV
Amount of blood per heart beat
Stroke volume
Pressure at the level of arterioles and arteries that opposes blood coming out of the heart.
Total peripheral resistance
*predominant component of diastolic pressure
Amount of blood in the ventricle immediately before systole.
End Diastolic Volume (EDV)
Amount of blood in the ventricle immediately before diastole.
End Systolic Volume (ESV)
Ventricular Contraction
Systole
Ventricular Relaxation
Diastole
LVEDV
Cardiac Preload
Aortic Pressure
Cardiac Afterload
Stroke volume/Arterial Compliance
Pulse pressure
Used to estimate L atrial Pressure
Pulmonary Capillary Wedge Pressure
Prolonged QT interval
Hypocalcemia
Prolonged PR interval
Heart blocks
Peak or Tall T waves, reduction of size of P waves, widened QRS, evolution to sinusoidal shape
Hyperkalemia
Isoelectric portion of ECG where ventricles are completely depolarized.
ST segment
ECG: Atrial Depolarization
P wave
ECG: Ventricular Depolarization
QRS
ECG: Ventricular Repolarization
T wave
ECG: Initial Repolarization of Ventricles
P-R interval
ECG: Intraventricular Conduction Time
QRS duration
ECG: Duration of Ventricular Action Potential
Q-T interval
Reflex: An increase in venous return will increase HEART RATE.
Bainbridge reflex
*volume receptors of atria
An increase in venous return will increase STROKE VOLUME.
Frank-Starling Mechanism
Set point of MAP in Vasomotor center
100 mmHG
Respond in low BP
Carotid Sinus
- low and high
- 50 mmHg - 180 mmHg
Respond in high BP >80mmHg
Aortic Arch
Branch of CN IX that carries signals from carotid sinus to NTS.
Hering’s nerve
Volume equilibrium between brain tissue, blood, and CSF.
Monroe-Kelly Doctrine
Triad: HPN, Irregular respiration and Bradycardia
Cushing Reflex
increased ICP
Phase of cardiac cycle where Aortic pressure is highest.
Reduced Ventricular Ejection
Phase of cardiac cycle where Ventricular pressure is lowest.
Isovolumic Relaxation
- closure of SL valves
- v wave (atrial filling)
Closure of aortic valve in aortic pressure curve
Dicrotic notch
The aortic valve closure marks the beginning of which phase in cardiac cycle?
Isovolumic Relaxation
Closure of AV valves
S1
Isovolumic contraction
Closure of SL valves
S2 (split during inspiration)
Isovolumic relaxation
S3
Rapid ventricular filling
S4
Stiff ventricles
Atrial Contraction/Systole
Where blood velocity is fastest
Aorta
Main fuel of the Heart
fatty acids
Disappearance of Korotkoff sounds at the level above diastolic pressure
Auscultatory gap
Prolonged PR interval (>200ms);
Conduction is slow but not completely interrupted
1st degree AV Block
Ventricular rate lower than atrial rate;
PR interval increases then ventricular beat is dropped;
Wenckeback phenomenon)
2nd degree AV Block
Conduction to ventricles completely interrupted and ventricles beat at low rate;
idioventricular rhythm
3rd degree (Complete) AV Block
Describes fluid movement into (absorption) or out (filtration) the capillary
Starling Forces
Normal net filtration
2mL/min
Most potent vasoconstrictor
Vasopressin
Most important controller of coronary blood flow.
Adenosine
Favors filtration;
Determined by pressure & resistance in arteries & veins
Capillary Hydrostatic Pressure
NV: 25 mmHg
Opposes filtration (favors absorption); Slightly negative due to lymphatic pump
Interstitial Hydrostatic Pressure
NV: -3 mmHg
Favors filtration;
Increased by increases in plasma protein concentration
Capillary Oncotic Pressure
NV: 28 mmHg
Favors filtration;
Determined by interstitial protein concentration
Interstitial Oncotic Pressure
NV: 8 mmHg
Hydraulic conductance of capillary wall.
Filtration coefficient
Counteracts TXA2
Prostacyclin (PGI2)
Most important factor in the closure of Ductus arteriosus.
Increased O2 tension
Organ with greatest blood flow per 100g of tissue
Kidneys
Functional anatomic unit of the Lung
Segmental Bronchi to Alveoli
Respiratory unit of the Lung
Respiratory bronchiole
Alveolar ducts
Alveoli
Anatomic deadspace
Nose to Terminal Bronchiole
Produces mucus
Goblet cell
May secrete protective GAGS and metabolize air-borne toxins
Clara cells
club cells
Largest circumference in the tracheobronchial tree.
Trachea
Law implying that an increase in Lung Volume will decrease pressure.
Boyle’s Law
Law for transfer of gases through simple diffusion in cell membranes or capillary walls.
Fick’s Law of Diffusion
Maintains oxygenation in between breaths;
Prevents lung collapse after max exhalation;
Cannot be measured directly by spirometry.
Residual volume
Amount of air inspired/expired during quiet breathing.
Tidal volume
Marker for Lung function;
Equilibrium/Resting volume of the Lung
Functional Residual Capacity
*air left in the lungs after a regular exhalation
Directly measured in spirometry.
Vital capacity
Anatomic Dead Space + Alveolar Dead Space
Physiologic Dead SPace
Minute ventilation corrected for physiologic dead space.
Alveolar Ventilation
Total rate of air movement in/out of the lungs.
Minute Ventilation
Connects alveoli to another alveoli; enable stability of alveoli
Pores of Kohn
Ability of the respiratory membrane to exchange gas between alveoli & pulmonary blood.
Diffusing capacity
Percentage of dissolved O2
2%
Percentage of O2 bound to Hgb
98%
Hgb with attached O2
Oxyhemoglobin
Hgb without attached O2
Deoxyhemoglobin
Hgb with Fe+3, doesnt bind O2
Methemoglobin
a2y2, higher affinity for O2
Fetal hemoglobin
sickled RBCs, less affinity to O2
Hemoglobin S
% of blood that gives up to its O2 as it passes through the tissues
Utilization coefficient
O2 affecting affinity of CO2/H+ to Hgb
Chloride shift
O2/H+ affecting affinity of O2 to Hgb
Haldane effect
V/Q = infinity
Dead space
V/Q = zero
Shunt
Zone with no blood flow
Zone 1
Zone with Intermittent blood flow
Zone 2
Zone with complete blood flow
Zone 3
- Lungs in supine position
- Lung during exercise
For normal inspiration; Main center that sends inspiratory ramp signal
DRG (medulla)
For Forced inspiration and passive expiration; overdrive mechanism in exercise
VRG
supplements
Located in upper pons that modify the DRG;
Limits duration of inspiration and increases RR
Pneumotaxic Center
Located in lower pons;
Prolongs duration of inspiration and decreases RR
Apneustic Center
Located in ventral medulla;
excited by CSF H+ from plasma CO2
Central Chemoreceptor
*adapt within 1-2 days
Stimulated by Lung distention;
Initiated Hering-Breuer reflex
Lung Stretch receptors
Stimulated by noxious chemicals
Irritant receptor
Strongest layer of the esophagus.
Submucosa
Periodic contractions due to spike potentials (ture AP).
Phasic Contraction
Constant level of contraction without regular rest due to sub threshold slow waves.
Tonic Contractions
Source of CCK in duodenum.
I cells
Secretes Mucus in GIT.
Mucous Neck Cell
Secretes HCl in GIT.
Parietal / Oxyntic Cell
Secretes Pepsinogen in GIT.
Chief / Peptic Cell
Secretes IF in GIT.
Parietal / Oxyntic Cell
Secretes Serotonin in GIT.
Enterochromaffin
Secretes Bicarbonate in GIT.
Mucous Neck Cell
Secretes Gastrin in GIT.
G Cells
Secretes Histmine in GIT.
ECL cells
Inhibits appetite
Satiety Center
Stimulates appetite
Hunger Center
Releases POMC to decrease appetite
Anorixegenic Neurons
Releases Neuropeptide Y to increase appetite
Orexigenic Neurons
Stimulates Anorexigenic neurons
Leptin (Fat cells)
Insulin , GLP-1
Inhibits Anorexigenic neurons
Ghrelin
Inhibits Ghrelin
Peptide YY
Substance responsible for activation of zymogen secretion.
Gastrin
Inhibits pancreatic HCO3- & enzymes.
Pancreatic Polypeptide
Secreted by intestinal cells in response to hypoglycemia.
Enteroglucagon
Secreted by L cells; stimulates insulin secretion
GLP-1
Inhibits all GI hormones
Somatostatin
Potentiates gastrin & ACh action on the parietal cells.
Histamine
Hunger pangs are strongest when?
3rd to 4th day
Myenteric Reflex + Anal Direction of Peristalsis
Law of the GUT
Causes receptive relaxation of the stomach.
VIP
Storage capacity of the stomach.
1.5L
Gastric emptying is faster in which condition?
Food is isotonic & liquid
Deactivated by Gastric pH
Salivary amylase
3 structures found in the Large intestines but not in the Small intestine
Haustra
Appedices epiplocae
Taenia coli
Defecation following a meal among infants is due to?
Gastrocolic reflex
Stimulates HCl secretion
Histamine (paracrine): H2 receptors
Ach (neurocrine): M3 recepetors
Gastrin (GI hormone): CCKb receptors
Inhibits HCl secretion
Low pH (<3.0) of the stomach
Somatostatin
Prostaglandins
Type of CHO absorbed
Monosaccharides
*gluc, galac, fruc
Activates Trypsinogen
Enterokinase
Glu, Gal absorption from Lumen to SI
SGLT-1
Fru absorption form lumen to SI
GLUT-5
Glu, Gal, Fru absorption form SI to blood
GLUT-2
Lingual lipase, Gastric Lipase
Acid-Stable
Pancreatic lipase
Acid-Labile
Fat absorption from lumen to SI
Micelles
Fat absorption from SI to LActeals
Chylomicrons
Tether Myosin to Z lines;
Binds Z lines to M lines
Titin
Stabilizes Sarcolemma and prevents contraction-induced rupture
Dystrophin
Binds Actin to Z lines
Actinin and CapZ protein
Binds Z lines to Sarcolemma
Desmin
Molecular ruler, sets actin length
Nebulin
Type of muscle with slow onset, low energy expenditure. greater and prolonged force of contraction.
Smooth muscle
- 4-6 kg/cm2
Blocks release of ACh from presynaptic terminals.
Botulinum toxin
Competes with ACh for receptors on motor end plate
Curare
Inhibits acetylcholinesterase
Neostigmine
Blocks reuptake of choline into presynaptic terminal
Hemicholinium
Ab directed against the ACh receptor
Myasthenia gravis
Ach binds to ____ in the motor end plate
Nm Rceptor/Ligand-Gated Ion Channel
Activated at the T-Tubules
DHPR
Calcium channels in the SR activated by DHPR
Ryanodine receptors
Binds to Trop C
Calcium
Happens when Ca binds with Trop C
Displaced Tropomyosin –> Exposure of binding sites in Actin
Happens when ATP binds with Myosin
Myosin detaches from Actin
Partial ATP hydrolysis
Recocking of Myosin heads
Complete ATP hydrolysis
Powerstroke
