Physics

Question 1

What is the atomic number (Z)

Answer 1

Number of protons

Question 2

What is the Pauli exclusion principle?

Answer 2

Maximum number of electrons per shell

X=2n^2

Question 3

What is binding energy?

How does atomic number affect it? How does the shell distance affect it?

Answer 3

Energy required to remove an electron from an atom

The electric force is inversely proportional to the shell distance, so farther shell electrons have a lower binding energy

A higher atomic number has a higher net positive charge, and thus a higher net energy to overcome

Question 4

What is “ground state”

Answer 4

An atom with no vacancies in its inner shell

Question 5

What are the 2 processes that occur when energy is applied to an atom?

Answer 5

Ionization and excitation

Question 6

What is the difference between ionization and excitation?

Answer 6

Ionization results in an energized electron going free (net charge +1)

Excitation results in an energized electron jumping a level (net charge 0)

Question 7

What is a “characteristic x ray”

Answer 7

When an inner shell electron leaves, an outer shell electron will jump to fill its place, releasing energy equal to the difference in binding energies of the two shells - known as the characteristic X-ray

Question 8

What is the auger electron

Answer 8

The energy released from the expulsion of an inner shell electron can transfer to an outer shell electron, which is expelled without production of the characteristic X-ray - termed to auger electron

Question 9

Which elements (heavy/light) are more likely to produce characteristic X-rays?

Answer 9

Heavier, as they have more electrons and thus a higher TOTAL number of reactions

Question 10

What is the atomic mass (A)

Answer 10

Protons + neutrons

Question 11

What is an isotope

Example?

Answer 11

Same atomic number (z), different atomic mass (n)

Hydrogen -> tritium

I123 vs I131

Question 12

What is an isobar?

Example?

Answer 12

Same atomic mass (a), different elements

I131 vs Xe131

Question 13

What are isotones?

Example?

Answer 13

Same neutrons, different atomic number (z)

O18, F19, N20

isotoNe = same N

Question 14

What is an isomer?

Example?

Answer 14

Same N and Z, different energy state

99tc vs 99mTc

Question 15

Why do heavier elements (A>40) have a ground state where N>Z?

Answer 15

Because the amount of repulsive forces between the higher amount of protons means more attractive forces between N-P and N-N are needed, which requires more N

Eg Pb has Z=82 and N=125

Question 16

What are two factors that may cause nuclear instability?

Answer 16

Nonstable N:Z

Excessive energy carried by nucleus

Question 17

What is gamma decay?

What are the end products?

Answer 17

A nucleus in its excited state transforms to a more stable lower energy state by emitting a gamma photon to carry away the excess energy

No compositional changes occur, only a loss of energy in the form of a gamma photon

Eg 99mTc -> 99Tc + gamma where gamma = 140.5 kev

Question 18

What is B-decay?

What are the end products?

Answer 18

A nuclear neutron changes to a proton plus an electron and an antineutrino

n -> p + e + uu

a. a
X -> Y
z z+1

Question 19

What happens to the mass in B-decay?

Answer 19

The atomic mass stays the same,that is, A is constant because we’re are exchanging a Z for an N

The actual mass will be slightly lower because of the mass carried away by the electron and kinetic energies of e and uu

Question 20

What are the 2 main differences between internal conversion and beta-decay?

Answer 20

1) in Beta-decay, the electron comes from the nucleus. In IC, the electron comes from orbit
2) beta-decay electrons are on a continuous spectrum of energy, whereas IC electrons are discrete in energy

Question 21

Give a clinical example of beta-decay

Answer 21

99Mo -> 99mTc + e-

In vivo,

99mTc -> 99Tc + gamma (and conversion electrons)

Question 22

What causes harm during use of 99mTc

Answer 22

Isomeric transmission of 99mTc to 99Tc releases gamma and conversion electrons. The conversion electrons damage the tissue

Question 23

What is electron capture?

What are the end products?

Answer 23

An orbital electron in an inner shell is captured by the nucleus
The captured electron then combines with a proton to form a neutron

p + e -> n + neutrino

a. a
X. Y
z. z-1

Question 24

What is internal conversion?

Answer 24

The nucleus releases excess energy by imparting it onto an orbital electron, which can be ejected if the energy supplies is higher than the binding energy

Excess energy becomes kinetic energy for the lost electron

Question 25

WHat two processes release excess energy

Answer 25

Gamma decay and internal conversion

Question 26

What is beta+decay and annihilation?

What are the end products?

Answer 26

The release of a positron from the nucleus with a neutrino

P -> n + e + neutrino

a. a
X. Y + e
z. z-1

Question 27

What is annihilation?

Answer 27

Two particles of opposite charge combine to make photons

The loss of a positron in beta+decay loses kinetic energy in collisions after a few mm. The positron will then combine with an electron and create two be photons

e+ + e- -> 2p

Question 28

In beta+ vs electron capture, which is more likely to occur in heavier elements? Lighter?

Answer 28

Lighter = beta+

Heavier = electron capture, electrons tend to be closer to the nucleus

Question 29

What is alpha decay?

What are the end product?

Answer 29

Nucleus releases an alpha particle containing 2p and 2n

a. a-2
X. Y + alpha
z. z-2

Question 30

What is nuclear fission

Answer 30

A heavy nucleus spontaneously bursts into two lighter nuclei

Question 31

What is the activity equation?

Units?

Answer 31

A(t) = - deltaN(t) / delta t

SI: Becquerel (Bq), one decay per second

Traditional: Curie (Ci), 1 Ci = 3.7 x 10^10 dps

Thus, 1Ci = 37 MBq

Question 32

What is the decay equation

Answer 32

N(t) = N(0) x e^-(lambda x t)

Question 33

What is the relationship between radioactive decay and half life

Answer 33

Lambda (decay constant) = ln2/t(1/2)

Question 34

What is the average life? Effective half life?

Answer 34

The average half life is the expected lifetime of an individual radioactive nucleus in sample

It’s longer than half life because some individual nuclei are longer lived and skew distribution

T(avg) = 1.44 t(1/2)

Effective half life takes into account the physical decay (Tp) as well as biological excretion (Tb)

Te = (TpTb)/(Tb+Tp)

Question 35

What is secular equilibrium? Transient equilibrium?

Answer 35

Secular: quantity of an isotope remains stable because its production rate is equal to its decay rate

Occurs when half life of child is much less than parent

Transient: occurs when child half life is slightly less than parent

Question 36

What is the Bohr model?

Answer 36

Central nucleus surrounded by rotating electrons