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Physical geography Flashcards

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1
Q

What defines a species?

A

A group of individuals that has the potential to produce fertile offspring and cannot reproduce with other groups

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2
Q

Genetic diversity?

A

Variation in individuals genetics between and within populations
Higher potential to survive long term as they have higher resilience

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3
Q

Ecosystem/ecological diversity?

A

the variety of ecosystems within the biosphere

Variety in flora

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4
Q

Species diversity?

A

the variety of species in a given area.

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5
Q

Why is biodiversity so important?

A

Different reasons. Insures carbon storage

as well as water resource and pollination for food production can be provided

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6
Q

Tropical biomes

A

Tropical forests = warm and humid all year around, equal temperature and a lot of energy and water. Nutrients cannot enter deeply in soil. Soil fertility stays in top layer. Big animals are high up in the trees competing for sunlight for photosynthesis.

Hot deserts = Extremely dry climate. No vegetation usually occurs.

Savannah = Warmer climate, close to tropical rainforest but has dry season. Growing of trees is therefore limited by amount of water falling. One large transition zone from rainforest to desert

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7
Q

Temperate biomes

A

Mediterranean, evergreen, grassland

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8
Q

Cold biomes - higher latitudes

A

Tundra = competition for nutrients. Many bulbs - a way to survive as it grows underground. Short growing season above ground. Short succession stages mostly mosses and no trees can grow

Taiga = cool climate and little precipitation.
Podzolic soils.
Coniferous forests

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9
Q

Epiphytes

A

Plants that grow on another plant.

Example is pineapple. Often in rainforest. Cannot capture roots in the soil themselves.

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10
Q

Coral reefs biome

A

Covering small areas but accounting for over 1/4 of the oceans total species biodiversity.
Can help us reveal the past climatic history.

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11
Q

Estuaries

A

Transition zones where the freshwater of the river meets the salt water of the ocean (examples include: mud flats and mangrove forests)

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12
Q

Succession

A

The sequential change in species over time following a disturbance event.
Disturbance: forest fire or volcanic eruption
Example: Taiga
Final succession stage is coniferous trees as its too cold for further development of forest

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13
Q

Primary succession

A

Starts in an area that has a complete lack of life (perhaps because of a volcano erupting)
Lacks competition

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14
Q

Secondary succession

A

Takes place after less dramatic disturbances (forest fires for instance, deforestation or construction activities). Soil existed before and can therefore progress faster than soil in primary succession

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15
Q

Habitat corridors

A

Can help to deal with fragmentation in nature. To connect patches of an ecosystem. To help species migrate. Examples could be tunnels under big highways to join two habits together.

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16
Q

Island biogeography theory

A

Islands tend to be less biodiverse because of water or other features blocking access to mainland for species to migrate.
However niches develop for special species that become endemic (only existing at a certain spot)

Larger islands = greater richness in species than smaller islands as larger islands probably have more resources and different habits.

Longer distance to mainland means less richness as more difficult for species to migrate

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17
Q

Ecosystem services

A

The direct and indirect contribution of ecosystems to human-well being

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18
Q

4 categorises of Ecosystem services

A

Provisioning, cultural, regulating and supporting

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19
Q

Regulating ecosystem services

A

Indirect services of ecosystems. The benefits of having a regulating water system, climate system and erosion system
Example: presence of trees allows the impact of heavy rainfall on the soil to be moderated by the barrier provided by leaves or branches while allowing a longer period for soil water replenishment.

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20
Q

Cultural ecosystem services

A

The non-material benefits. The aesthetic, knowledge, social and spiritual (ethical too).
Difficult to put a price on.
What we leave for the future (the lost biodiversity).

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21
Q

Supporting ecosystem services

A

Indirect services.

The soil formation, photosynthesis, water cycle

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22
Q

Provisioning

A

The direct supply from ecosystems. The products. The food, the fuel, fibre and pharmaceuticals.

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23
Q

What essential functions does soil perform?

A

Reservoir for water (aquafiers etc), medium for plant growth and food, filters the air and the water, recycles dead plants/animals, storing huge amounts of carbon

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24
Q

Main components of soil

A

45% mineral. 25 % air. 25% water. 5% organic

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25
Q

Mineral part of soil

A

Formed by weathering of parent material.
Primary minerals = changed little since formation
secondary minerals = formed from breakdown and chemical weathering of less resistant primary minerals

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26
Q

Soil litter

A

remainder of decomposed animal and plant waste

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27
Q

Soil humus

A

A dark and organic material that forms in soil when plant and animal matter decays

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28
Q

Soil biomass

A

living organisms and plant roots

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29
Q

Mineralisation

A

The process where the breakdown of organic matter by microorganisms leads to nutrients being released such as nitrogen, carbon and phosphorus

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30
Q

Water in soil

A

Important as it is required for parent material weathering.

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31
Q

Saturated soil

A

When all the soil is saturated the pores are filled with water

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32
Q

Soil air

A

The air within the soil occupies the pore spaces within the soil (if it is not saturated with water that is)

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33
Q

Soil profile

A

Vertical section through the soil from ground surface down to the parent material.

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34
Q

Soil horizons

A

The layers within the soil profile.

O, A, E, B, C, R

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35
Q

O horizon

A

Basically the surface layer (soil humus). Consisting of organic matter (decay of animals and plants). Not always present.

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36
Q

A layer

A

The topsoil.

Contains rich organic material with minerals. High concentration of organic matter and microorganism.

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37
Q

E horizon

A 
Elevation layer (may be missing in some soils)
Mineral horizon. Lighter in color
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38
Q

B horizon

A

Also mineral horizon but enriched in iron

Soil of acculumation.

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39
Q

C horizon

A

Loose material. Much of original material and fragments. often light in color.

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40
Q

R horizon

A

Bedrock. Form parent material.

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41
Q

Pedogenesis

A

Process of soil formation. The soil horizons develop after number of processes.
Processes like weathering, winds, rain etc.
A rock splits and expands leading to smaller particles entering the soil with new minerals.

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42
Q

Addition of pedogenesis

A

Comes from parent material. Can also be material gathered by wind or energy from the sun

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43
Q

Losses of pedogenesis

A

Removals from soil because of erosion or filtering

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44
Q

Mixing of pedogenesis

A

Mixing of organic and inorganic components is carried out by soil animals and plant roots or by freezing of water and shrinking and swelling. humans = ploughing

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45
Q

Factors affecting soil formation - Climate

A

Perhaps the most influential factor. Determines the moisture level and temperature and therefore amount of precipitation (affecting weathering).
Hot and wet climate soil are very different to soil in cold and dry climates.

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46
Q

Factors affecting soil formation - topography

A

Altitude = can quickly change climatic conditions (usually drier and colder)
Higher slopes = allows for more erosion.
lower temp = less biological activity and less decomposition of organic matter

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47
Q

Factors affecting soil formation - organisms

A

Earthworms or other small animals mix and freshen the soil. Found to increase the infiltration rate
Could be animals, plants rooting or even humans ploughing that change biological factors such as moisture

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48
Q

Factors affecting soil formation - time

A

Time continually forms the parent material under the influence of the other factors.
Sedimentation and depositing takes time.

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49
Q

Impact of human activities on soil - erosion

A

further accelerated by human activities. Farming such as removal of vegetation and heavy machinery could affect. In turn this impacts our food supply chains.

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50
Q

Impact of human activities on soil - acidification

A

enhanced by use of fossil fuels resulting in acid rain and overuse of nitrogen fertilizers.
The more hydrogen ions the more acid the soil is.

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51
Q

Impact of human activities on soil - pesticides

A

Human use to protect crops. Have a broad spectrum activity.

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52
Q

Salinization and soil

A

Salt increase leading to less fertility.

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53
Q

Soil compaction

A

Caused by heavy machinery or trampling of livestock especially in wet soil conditions. Leads to reduced porosity of the soil and therefore increases risk of erosion as less water can infiltrate soils pores (less saturation can take place)

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54
Q

Climatic variables affecting plants - light

A

Green leaves capture light via photons (green pigments -chlorophylls) which leads to carbon being absorbed and converted into glucose which is needed for the growth

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55
Q

Climatic variables affecting plants - water

A

Supply of water needed for growth. Drought can be dealt with by shedding the green leaves for instance.
The turgor needs water to keep leaves up

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56
Q

Climatic variables affecting plants - temperature

A

Reactions involved in photosynthesis require warmth. Best between 10 and 30 degrees.

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57
Q

Climatic variables affecting plants - carbon dioxide concentration

A

Increase in co2 leads to increase in photosynthesis.

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58
Q

The northern tree line

A

Geographical boundary where trees grow more slow

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59
Q

Formation of ocean basins

A

When two plates spread apart and new crust is formed at the mid-ocean ridge as a result the ocean basin will grow larger and larger.

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60
Q

Continental shelf

A

Area of seabed where most of the coarse-grained sediment derived from erosion is deposited. Shallow water and closest to land. First transition into deep ocean

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61
Q

Continental slopes

A

Similar to mountain ranges on continents but below ocean surface. From continent into ocean crust.

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62
Q

Physical properties of ocean - salinity

A

Chemicals that make up salt in seawater were originally derived from chemical weathering of rocks on land. From river into ocean.
Higher salinity in oceans that experience drier climate as more evaporation occurs there.

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63
Q

Physical properties of ocean - temperature structure

A

Oceans are important in controlling climate on earth. Surface water gain temperature from sun radiation and heat is lost by evaporation. Stores energy from the sun

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64
Q

Ocean circulation - surface currents

A

Driven by winds. Trade winds blow out of the south east (southern hem) and out of north east (northern hem).

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65
Q

Ocean circulation - deep currents

A

Driven by density variations (driven by salinity and temperature) = thermohaline cirulation. Dense water sinks

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66
Q

Life in the ocean - photosynthesis

A

Plants that photosynthesise. Example is phytoplankton.

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67
Q

Important nutrients to the ocean

A

Nitrate and phosphate = fertilizers of the sea
usually estuaries are places with high productivity. Could lead to eutrophication where unnaturally high productivity occurs.

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68
Q

Ocean waves

A

a factor for shaping the coats and driving nearshore sediment transport. Generated by wind. Stronger wind= stronger wave.

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69
Q

Wave length

A

Distance between successive crests (one cycle)

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70
Q

Wave period

A

The time is takes for the wave to travel a distance equal to its wavelength

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71
Q

Wave height

A

Difference in elevation between the crest and the trough (amplitude which depend on speed of wind and the distance the wave is travelling)

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72
Q

Wave shoaling

A

The process whereby the waves change in height as they travel into shallower water (as it is decreasing in speed and length but the height increases)

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73
Q

Surf zone of waves

A

Where waves are suddenly seen to ‘‘pick up’’ and becomes steeper as a result of breaking the wave shoaling

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74
Q

Wave refraction

A

The waves don’t flow straight but in a slight angle when dumping sand on the land. That is how the particles will be distributed on the coast. Gives a smooth shoreline

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75
Q

Types of coastal processes: storm surge

A

Significantly elevated water level near the shore (examples: hurricanes). Causes depend on: low pressure, onshore wind, coastal topography

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76
Q

Types of coastal processes: tides

A

caused by gravitational attraction of the earth-moon system and the earth-sun system.
The difference between high and low tide = tidal range (pressure gradients)
When sun and moon are facing same direction they pull water towards them
When not facing same direction the water is not pulled outwards.

Moon causes gravitational force on earth. The part of earth that is directed towards the moon will be pulled outwards while rotating simultaneously.
High tide = the pulling towards moon

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77
Q

Spring tides

A

Extra powerful tides when the earth, moon and sun are all aligned.
Twice a moon when you have full moon or new moon.

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78
Q

Types of coastal processes: tsunami

A

Cause can by: earthquake, large landslide into ocean or impulse generated by a meteorite. Long wavelength and small height therefore faster first but becoming shorter in wavelength closer to the shore and increase in height but decrease in speed.

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79
Q

Wave dominated coasts: barriers

A

Barrier islands, lagoons, estuary. Often made up of sand.

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80
Q

Transgressive barriers

A

Barriers that move towards land under influence of rising sea level or negative sediment budget. For instance tidal deltas

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81
Q

Regressive barriers

A

Strandplains that develop under influence of falling sea level or positive sediment budget.

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82
Q

Wave dominated coasts: beaches

A

Sediments are picked up with waves and dumped on the land creating a beach (realises energy like that)

83
Q

Wave dominated coasts: coastal dunes

A

Closely linked to a beach. Needs large supply of sand and a lot of wind. Protect coast from erosion.

84
Q

Tide dominated coasts: estuaries/tidal flats

A

Example: Wadden Sea (tidal flats)
Eemsmonding, Westerschelde (estuaries)

Mixing between fluvial and marine processes = low energy zone. Therefore the mixed area has a very gentle environment.
The tidal flats have sea level rise as well as sedimentation to work.

River valleys were flooded as sea level rose + ice melting. Over time sedimentation has occurred. Can be divided between wave and tide dominated estuaries.
Wave dominated = areas with high levels of wave energy
Tide dominated = areas with relatively large tidal ranges and currents

85
Q

Ebb and flood dominance in estuaries’

A

Flood dominant and ebb dominant ones. Flood = landward sediment transport
ebb = seaward sediment transport

86
Q

Fluvial dominanted coats: deltas

A

accumulations of sediment deposited where rivers enter the sea (more sediment than discharge). Relatively fast flowing river.
The capacity to carry the sediment slowly reduces and when entering the sea it stagnates.
The amount of sediment delivered into the margin of the coast outpaces the ability for waves and tides currents to remove these sediments.
delta plain = sedimentary platform
delta front= seaward front of the delta that is located in relatively shallow water
pro-delta = toe of the delta front in relatively deep water is generally out of reach of wave processes

87
Q

Different classifications of deltas

A

Fluvial dominated = large catchments with minimal nearshore wave energy.
Fresh water slows over salt water.
Example is Mississippi delta (bird foot)

Wave dominated = found in open coast settings, more exposed to waves with mixes the water and sediment cannot float as easily on the water.
Example: Nile delta
(Straight)

tide dominated = when the volume of water in a tide is larger than the fluvial discharge and found near macro tidal coastlines.
High tide brings sediment back into the coast

Example: Ganges delta
(spread out)

88
Q

Erosive coasts: rocky coasts

A

caused by mass movements = common among steep slopes, tearing down cliffs due to erosion and weathering

89
Q

Erosive coasts: coastal cliffs

A

= steep slopes that border ocean coasts

90
Q

Erosive coasts: shore platforms

A

'’wave-cut platforms’’

91
Q

Radiative forcing

A

Expression of imbalance of earths energy system

92
Q

Global warming indicators

A

Northern Hemisphere spring snow cover, change in global average upper ocean heat content, Arctic summer sea ice extent, global average sea level change

93
Q

IPCC

A 
Intergovernmental panel of climate change = highly scientific organisation of UN
founded 1988
1990 first report
2013 fifth report 
2021 Latest report (AR6)
94
Q

Climate scenarios (modelling)

A

Socio-economic future development and radiative forcing

4 main scenarios: RCP 2.6, 4.5, 6.0 & 8.5

95
Q

2021 radiative forcing

A

2.72 (higher than lowest scenario)

96
Q

SSPx

A

New way of referring to RCP

Means shared socio-economic pathway

97
Q

Little ice age

A

Changed only 1-2 degrees but massive difference in temperature in the world and north-western europe

98
Q

AR5 model in words

A

Changing precipitation will change hydrological system (medium confidence)

Many species have shifted geographical range (high confidence)

Negative impacts on crop yields are more common than positive ones (high confidence)
(high confidence)

Human-ill health shows no clear relation to climate change (except heat and cold related mortality)

99
Q

AR5 extreme scenarios

A

Decrease in number of cold days and increase in number of hot days (high confidence)

more land regions with heavy rainfall events (likely)

Increase of frequency and magnitude of fluvial floods (low confidence)

more droughts (low confidence due to missing data)

Increase in storm surges since 1970 due to sea level rise (likely)

100
Q

KNMI climate scenario (Regional - NL)

A

From 2014.
Global temperature rise (G, low or high) & Change in air circulation patterns (W, low or high)
More dominant westerly winds in NL recent years.

101
Q

Regional climate change effects - coastal zones

A

Little or no change in storm surge frequency
Continuation of rising sea level
Increased salination of ground and surface water

102
Q

Regional climate change effects - Water budget

A

Drought will lead to deficit, lower water quality and salinisation

103
Q

Regional climate change effects - Fresh water discharge

A

The river discharge will rise in winter (higher peak)
Increase in change of flooding
The fitness of rivers will decrease in warm summers

104
Q

Regional climate change effects - General health

A

Higher deaths in summer due to increased temperatures but lower in winter
Reduced air quality in summers
longer growing season which means increase in number of ‘‘allergy days’’

105
Q

Regional climate change effects - Mobility

A

More traffic delays could be caused due to heavy showers, but less due to less snow and frost on roads

106
Q

Regional climate change effects - Nature

A

Larger drought risk for rain dependent nature such as moors
Increased risk for forest fires
Migration of animals

107
Q

Regional climate change effects - Agriculture

A

Increased yields due to higher temperature, longer growing season and higher CO2 concentration

108
Q

Regional climate change effects - energy

A

Less energy for heating, more for air conditioning

109
Q

Regional climate change effects - Recreation

A

Increase in number of recreation days in sun

increase algae growth

110
Q

Mitigation

A

To reduce the hazards of the change before they occur
- a type of intervention to reduce the causes of it happening
example of a mitigation measure: from coal to sun energy (energy transition)

111
Q

Adaption

A

Adjustment or coping with new environment

example of measures: Sponge city concept in China to deal with regional flooding

112
Q

Strategies for mitigation and adaption

A

Mitigation: using nuclear, wind and solar energy, reduce general consumption, storing co2
Adaption: higher dikes, flooding scenarios, developing wet natural areas as a buffer for flooding or living with the water

113
Q

Ocean bathymetry

A

Ocean floor is very heterogenous, varies a lot due to new crust constantly being formed.

114
Q

Measuring ocean depth

A

Sound transmitter and receiver systems used - distance of sound gives distance to sea bed
Now a days we use satellite to measure sea level under the ocean

115
Q

Gravity anomalies effecting ocean sea floor measurements

A

By measuring the mean sea level over a long period it can give us the geoid and a more realistic ocean bathymetry

116
Q

Link depth and age of ocean

A

Increasing age of ocean - means increasing density as the crust as been existing for longer time

117
Q

Ocean sediments

A

The rock in the bottom of the ocean is overlaid by millions of years of sediment coming from:

  • biological (from animals and plants)
  • from rivers or ice or rivers
118
Q

Warm western boundary currents

A

Water flows from east to west around the equator and brings warm water with it (due to Hadley + Coriolis effect that diverts the air.

119
Q

Cool eastern coasts - upwhelling

A

water moves from east to west - therefore cold deep water in ocean is upwelled to replaced the warm water that has travelled to the west.

120
Q

Salinity of the ocean

A

Rivers deposit material into the sea and increases the salinity in oceans. Sodium and Chloride are the main components of the salt in ocean.

121
Q

Surface circulation of oceans

A

Drivers? Wind driven

Push east to west near equator
Also west to east in northern Atlantic
Not steady throughout the year - depends on season and the Hadley cell that shifts

122
Q

Pressure gradients

A

The pressure gradients is what produces this flow of circulation. From high pressure to low pressure to fill out the “empty space” in low pressure. The average acceleration of flow depends on the difference of the densities in the water.
Sea level differences (barotropic flow)
or density (baroclinic flow)

123
Q

Sea level change

A

Eustatic control - sea level by water volume, generally world wide

Isostatic controls - sea level result from the equilibrium wanting to occur due to the lithosphere of different thickness. Generally regional. Uplifted land leads to indirect lower sea levels.

124
Q

Sea surface difference along the equator

A

Along the equator you don’t have impact of Coriolis effect and water can then pile up and crease 40 cm difference from east to west pacific ocean. Upwelling of west coast of South America as a result (nutrient and chlorophyll enhanced)

125
Q

Monsoon cirulations

A

Huge shift in convergence zone in Indian ocean. That changes the ocean currents as well.

126
Q

North atlantic ocilliation

A

Every 40-50 year major shift in cold and warm days in Atlantic due to fluctional in the strength of the Icelandic Low and the Azores High pressures.

127
Q

Normal sea surface conditions in the Pacific

A

Upwelling on South Americas west coast and water flowing from east to west creating a type of circulation cell

128
Q

El nino

A

A unnormal year in pacific upwelling deep water and disrupting the normal circulation (walker) cell from east to west. Instead some years we have a a weakening and not a strong push of winds and less deeper water upwelling.

129
Q

La nina

A

The walker circulation is strengthened

130
Q

El nino effects

A

Fishing industries in South America (economic impact)

Also has impact on western pacific changing precipitation patterns and periods of droughts

131
Q

El nino (ENSO) in future

A

Either produce more or fewer events. Could be occurrence of longer el Niño events as results of global warming. All contributing to devastating effects to economic industries and crops (droughts).

132
Q

Ocean fertilization

A

Phytoplankton plays a major role in marine chemistry and cycles in oceans.
Example: DMS can have a direct impact of reflection of short wave radiation

133
Q

Economic importance of oceans

A 
Fisheries
Offshore oil and gas
renewable energy 
Shipping ports for trades
Coastal engineering and flood defences
134
Q

Biological importance of the oceans

A

providing livelihoods and home to birds and marine mammals. Plays a role in ecosystem.

135
Q

Energy from oceans- coasts

A

Tidal power: natural processes that occur and taking advantage of this. Change in height leads to strong flows of water which can be used for power and energy
via: Barrages (Can destroy natural ecosystem)
Lagoons (where water can be controlled)
Can change sedimentation patterns
Tidal stream power - a wind turbine but in the water
Wave energy - capture power from wind in for example a floating “worm”.

136
Q

What is attractive about a coastal zone?

A

Fish, Recreation, Trade for boats, availability for wave and wind energy, agriculture, settlements

137
Q

Threats of coasts

A

Pollution, erosion, storm surges, floods, sealevel rise

138
Q

Storm surge 1953

A

Last major flood in north west Europe
Spring tide occurred + Low pressure area
happens only every 50-100-200 years.

139
Q

Allergeilgenvloed 2006

A

High tide - once every 50 years

Horses were flooded

140
Q

Types of coasts?

A 
Deltas
Bays
Coral
Diked
Lagoons
Cliffs
Fjords
Mangroves
Beaches and dunes
Estuaries 
Saltmarshes 
Wetlands
141
Q

Swash

A

The most energy rich part of the wave that realises most sediment on coastline

142
Q

Landforms created by waves on shorelines

A

Tombolo - a beach between two pieces of land (example: Gibraltar)
Lagoon/bar
Spit - sea creates extra beach between two parts of land
example: Schrool near the Hague where the filled in the beach to make it extra thick to protect the dunes inland

143
Q

New nature in De Kerf, Schoorl

A

Sand and sea were given space to meander and many rare plants developed rapidly in the area. Solution? Opened up but closed again

144
Q

Natural salt marsh vs man made salt marsh

A 
Only flood in spring tide (twice a month). 
Ditches created (not allowed anymore) help to reduce the speed of water.
145
Q

Delta switching

A

Dynamic in natural environment

146
Q

Atoll development

A

Atoll grows with the ocean. A ring-shaped coral reef with marine animals. Coral reef will grow with the sea but as global warming is effecting the coral and their growth it doesn’t occur as smoothly.

147
Q

Jakarta relative sea level rise

A

Land subsidence + sea level rise combination. Regional 9 mm per year. Land is subsiding quicker (0-60 mm per year) than sea level is rising. Extraction from groundwater aquifers causes a subsidence.

148
Q

Consequences of sea level rise?

A
  • wetland flooding
  • aquifers and soil contaminated with salt
  • lost of habitats for fish, birds and plants
  • erosion
  • more devastating hurricanes
  • more devastating storm surges
149
Q

NAP

A

normaal amsterdams peil (Amsterdam Ordnance Datum)
Mean sea level in Amsterdam itself
Used as a reference altitude.
Based on annual average summer high tide level in Harbour in Amsterdam.

150
Q

Meltwater pulses

A

Can cause sudden change in sea levels and climate

151
Q

Holocene global sea level rise

A

Fast rise until 7000 years, steady since then

152
Q

Relative vs absolut sea level rise

A

relative = isostatic
height of ocean rises or falls at a particular location
absolute = eustatic
worldwide
the general sea level is rising due to melting ice for example

153
Q

Glacio-isostacy

A

Still occurring today - relative sea level rise

Due to previous ice ages and the glacial the earth needs to response back - by rising the surface

154
Q

Glacio-isostatic in the Netherlands

A

Land subsidence occurring due to the levelling off after the recent ice age

155
Q

Local sea level rise drivers

A
  • isostatic and tetonic land movements
  • local differences in paleo-groundwater level
    changes in paleotidal range (estuary)
  • river gradient effect
  • local water level changes due to rivers course
156
Q

How to measure local sea level rise?

A

Using index points.

They could be based on foraminifera (only living on certain depth), historical records, raised beaches or basal peat

157
Q

How to measure local sea level rise?

A

Using index points.

They could be based on foraminifera (only living on certain depth), historical records, raised beaches or basal peat

158
Q

Global sea level drivers - eustatic

A 
Thermal expansion (1.4 mm /y)
Glacial and ice melting - varying between 0.3 to 0.6 mm /y
groundwater use (0.09 mm/year)
159
Q

Which environmental factors determine plant growth?

A

Sun radiation, soil moisture, climate but also human interference

160
Q

Vegetational change

A

Noted differences in different vegetation land due to warmer temperatures. Vegetation is moving upwards - shift in northern tree line

161
Q

Phenology

A

The study of the timing of natural phenomena related to the climate such as time of flowering and seed formation

162
Q

Vegetation studies with pollen change

A

Analyse pollen to show a shift from shrubs to trees as a result of climate becoming warmer

163
Q

Modelling plants response to climatic variables

A
  • link individual species to biomes
    (deciduous broadleaf forests for instance)
    = PFT
    To understand how much carbon dioxide is up taken by plants - more clouds are formed and less carbon released to space
164
Q

Biogeography

A

global scale -
Why are some animal and plants placed on certain areas on earth?
Study of geographical distribution of animals, life, plants and vegetation.
covers adaption and change over time

165
Q

Abiotic vs biotic

A

Abiotic - soil, water etc

Biotic - competition among organisms or diseases

166
Q

Tolerance limit

A

a range of what a specie can tolerate in their natural environment

167
Q

Limiting factors

A

Plants can only grow if the minimum limit is reached in the environment and there is a maximum limit of how much an organism can grow

168
Q

Ecosystems and ecotype

A

Ecotope: all the plants and animals living within the ecosystem
biotope: the physical or abiotic environment
ecology studies ecosystems

169
Q

Savannah ecosystem

A

Drier environment but if more drought would occur it would lead to less moisture in the soil, leading to loss in grass and less food for ungulates and they will migrate to find grass (grazing)

170
Q

Niche

A

Specific habitat for a specific specie

171
Q

Heath field stage of succession

A

Bushes

Unstable succession

172
Q

Competition between species

A

Between and within habitats. They have to adapt to disturbance to survive.

173
Q

Movements and migration

A

movement back and forth on regular basis most often in between summer and winter

174
Q

Biomes

A

Zones that have certain characteristics that shape and form life and composition of plants and animals. Based on vegetation but related to soil and climate with large regional difference

175
Q

vegetation

A

System of more or less spontaneously growing plants

176
Q

Hotspot theory

A

In some areas you can find a larger biodiversity - different around the world. Some species might only live there and therefore essential to protect.

177
Q

Terraced crop growing

A

Sustainable way to farm to avoid soil erosion with “steps” in slopes.

178
Q

What are ecosystem services?

A

Different definitions. “A wide range of conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems and the species that are a part of them, help sustain and fulfill human life”
or
“Contributions of ecosystems structure and function in combination with other inputs to human well-being”

179
Q

Food as a part of provisioning services

A

Animal: Dairy, eggs, meat
Plant: Seeds, fruits
Other: bacteria and seaweed

180
Q

Feeding as part of provisioning services

A

Animal: fish, bone meal
Plant: Corn, soybeans, oat
Other: seaweed

181
Q

Fiber as part of provisioning

A

Animal: Collagen, feather, fur, silk, wool
Plant: Cotton, Bamboo, Hemp, Jute
Other: Seaweed

182
Q

Fuel as part of provisioning

A

Animal: Dung, fat, biomass
Plant: Biomass, Oil, fossil fuels
Other: Microalgae

183
Q

Pharmaceuticals as part of provisioning

A

Animal: Gallstones, Venom, Urine, insulin
Plant: Expectorant, Diaphoretic, Febrifuge, Astringent
Other: Microalgae, seaweed, microorganisms

184
Q

Others things part of provisioning

A

Animal: Shellac, Beeswax, Tallow
Plant: Resin, wax, dyes, soups
Other: biopesticides, seaweed, dendrology

185
Q

Regulating + supporting services

A

Purification of water and air
Reducing drought and floods
detoxification of wastes (decomposition)
Pollination of crops (dispersal of seeds)
Cycling of nutrients
Maintaining biodiversity
Protects shore from erosion
Protects from harmful UV rays
Partial stabilisation of the climate
moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

186
Q

What problems are ecosystem (+ services) facing?

A

Ecosystems are often undervalued (especially the regulating and supporting services) as we dont see them directly
Disruptions of the ecosystems are caused by humans are impossible to reverse on a human relevant time scale
So a continued lack of awareness will dramatically alter earths remaining natural ecosystems within a few decades

187
Q

Provisioning services: fishing for food

A

2016 - 7.6 billion people
average 20 kg of fish per person
= 152 million tones of fish in a year
90% of worlds largest fish stocks are fully exploited or overexploited

188
Q

Provisioning services: Medicine

A

Brazil earns millions of dollars a year on medicine found in the Amazon but now grown in greenhouses which could lead to lost gen variability

189
Q

Regulating + supporting services: Atmosphere

A

Helps to alter the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which leads to cooling.
A positive feedback loop of cooling (lower sea levels, more eroded land, fertile waters with phytoplankton that helps deal with carbon leading to more cooling)
Deforestation could dramatically reduce total precipitation

190
Q

Regulating + supporting services: Floods/droughts

A

Water is dispersed to plants, aquifers and streams by soil
The plants help protect the soil from erosion
If we strip the forest and plants we get more mud and less ability for soil to absorb the water leading to more erosion, less nutrients to grow crops and disrupts water quality and can increase severity of flooding

Solution? Wetlands! Slowing down water flow and minimising pressure + allowing for deposition and less sediment to fill up water streams

191
Q

Regulating + supporting services: Soil

A

Soils provide recycling of nutrients, provides plants with physical support, retains + deliver nutrients to plants, plays a role in decomposition of organic matter and regulates carbon/nitrogen/sulphur cycle

192
Q

Hydroponic systems

A

A way to save space when dealing with soil as a provision for physical support. Very expensive method

193
Q

Regulating + supporting services: Pollination

A

Flowering plants require animal pollination as over 100.000 animals acts as pollinators
They require complex ecosystems to stay alive
Diseases, decline in diversity and invasive species threatens pollinators

194
Q

Regulating + supporting services: Pest control

A

Huge issue for agriculture. 99% of all potential pests are controlled naturally via ecosystems.
Can lead to decline in sperm count and lead to resistance for future use

195
Q

Conflict between short-term individual benefits and long-term societal well-being

A

We undervalue our ecosystems importance as ecosystems usually don’t benefit us individually
How to benefit landowners for profit?
Ecosystems are both regional and global
Therefore difficult to regulate

196
Q

Definition of Land degradation

A

“Temporarily or permeant loss of productive capacity of land due to human action”

“A temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land. This can be seen through a loss of biomass, a loss of actual productivity or in potential productivity or loss or change in vegetative cover/soil nutrients”

197
Q

Example of land degradation in Netherlands

A

Veluwe
Today mostly sand not forest
Peat has been dug out and animals used in deciduous forest, animals that eat ekthorns and less nutrients and vegetation can therefore grow

198
Q

What are the main causes of land degradation?

A

Agriculture (drainage, deforestation and use of pesticides)
Extraction of recourses such as mining
Waste (drug waste in nature)
Urban growth

199
Q

Different types of land degradation

A

Soil erosion, soil acidification, soil pollution, soil trampling, loss of organic matter, desertification, desiccation, salinization and loss of general biodiversity in soil

200
Q

Soil erosion as type of land degradation

A

different processes contribute to erosion?

The weather, Vegetation cover, Land use, animal life, type of soil, water/precipitation and topography/steepness

201
Q

Measures to help deal with erosion/land degradation

A
  • contour ploughing (reduced overland flow)
  • windbreaks (reduces wind power to erode)
  • strip farming
  • leaving crop remains on land
  • winter crops
  • terraces with slopes
202
Q

What is pesticide and pest?

A

Pesticide = substance intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest
pest = insects, mice, fungi, weed, bacteria or virus
Effects of use? Humans face the risk of direct exposure as well as drinking contaminated water and inhaling. Could lead to birth defects, kidney failure and cancer

203
Q

Water balance and vegetation effects

A

Different scenarios depending on vegetation cover.

  1. Lot of vegetation. Means that each water droplet has less impact on soil. Trees can transpire the water
  2. No vegetation cover. Each water droplet has high impact on soil cover
  3. Urban buildings. No vegetation or sparse covers. Each droplet has high impact on overland flow.

Geography (5 decks)

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