Philosophy of Science (incl. theories) - Blaikie ch. 4

Question 1

Four fundamentally different research strategies (RS) = research logic - How do they differ ?

Answer 1

• unique logic of enquiry
• ontological assumptions = philosophy of science
• starting points
• use of concepts
• styles of explanation and understanding
• status of their products

They are normally used in the context of a research paradigm - some are closely associated with a particular research paradigm - others can use a number of them

Question 2

Why is the philosophy of science important ?

Answer 2

How YOU interpret science, reasoning, causality, etc. can influence how YOU research a phenomenon
YOUR view of generating knowledge and YOUR acknowledgement of this can improve YOUR research skills

• The principle task of philosophy of science is to analyze the methods of enquiry in various sciences
• •It is to bring the scientific assumptions to the surface
• •In social sciences concerns the principles regulating the search for and the acquisition of knowledge (scientific knowledge) about reality (social reality)

Question 3

What is a philosophy of science ?

Answer 3

= a branch of formal philosophy dedicated to questions about science and the scientific method.
= asks questions about why and how science is done and why it may be a good method. It also deals with the nature of knowledge - what constitutes knowledge and how it affects science.
In the practical sense, “the” philosophy of science is almost synonymous with the scientific method - it is the philosophy and ideal that scientists hold and that they believe they should ascribe to.

Question 4

What is my influence, how do I choose RS ?

Answer 4

• familiarity (or its lack) with the strategies
• preference for a certain ontological and epistemological assumption
• perceived link between research methods and RS
• preferences of audience and consumers
• pragmatic factors - time, cost, availability

Question 5

Define Inductive research strategy

Answer 5

-informally called “bottom up” approach
- more open-ended and exploratory - especially at the beginning
• Usually answers what questions

Aim = establish limited generalisations/descriptions from observed or measured social phenomenon (characteristics and patterns)
Start: observe - collect data on characteristics and/or patterns - produce description

• You move from premises about objects you have examined to make conclusions about objects you haven’t examine
• Social world can only be observed or measured through research-defined concepts; E.g.quantitative data requires the researcher define the characteristic (= conventionalism)
• the selection of characteristics to be studied (incl. their definition and measurement) are conducted from the researcher’s point of view

Conclusion

• is not guaranteed because not all evidence may have been gathered
• is limited in space and time and not a universal law

Question 6

What is a Deductive RS ?

Answer 6

• informally “top-down” approach
• more narrow in nature
• usually answers the WHY question = explains observed patterns

Aim: to find an explanation for an association between two concepts by proposing a theory (the relevance of which can be tested)

Start to finish:

• think up a theory about our topic of interest (=general rule to a guaranteed solution)
• narrow that into more specific hypothesis that we can test = this theory has to be invented or borrowed and expressed as a deductive argument that allows for its testing (there should be no causal language - it should only express an association between two concepts) - these arguments provide a possible explanations for the associations - need to be tested
• then collect observations to address the hypothesis - concepts have to be defined, measurements determined, populations/samples selected
• test the hypothesis with specific data and confirm (or not) the theory - if the premisses are true than the conclusion is also true (relate the findings from the research to the propositions/arguments - compare patterns from the propositions with the patterns in the data)

Deductive explanation should be seen as possible explanations, not as ultimate truths - they can be accepted until sth better comes along

Premiss = a previous statement/proposition from which another is inferred

Question 7

Define Retroductive RS ?

Answer 7

Usually answers WHY questions
- The underlying mechanisms are seen as logical associations in deductive logic while they are seen as social influences in retroduction

Goal
= to give an explanation of underlying mechanisms to account for observed phenomenon (discover the context of regularity - it might facilitate the mechanism)
= build hypothetical models of structures (mechanisms) that are assumed to produced empirical phenomena

Work backwards from the data to a possible explanation

Step 1: provide description of regularity explained incl. the context
Step 2: construct model of how regularity may work - explain how the context facilities the operations
Step 3: seek evidence that explains model - in social sciences often choose from known social mechanisms - central to explanation is context + mechanism
Seeks explanations either from a structuralist (i.e. mechanisms in social structures) or constructionist (i.e. cognitive structures) perspective

Problem
- how do we discover underlying structures and mechanisms ?
Solution
- it requires disciplined scientific thinking and creative imagination, intuition and guesswork

Question 8

What is an Abductive RS ?

Answer 8

• answer what and why questions
• Seeks to provide an understanding rather than an explanation; reasons rather than causes
  (= discovering the viewpoint of those involved) - it develops descriptions and constructs theories that are grounded in everyday activities and/or in the language and meanings of social actors

Theories are constructed from social actor’s language, meaning, accounts, etc. in the context of everyday activities
(These meanings are regarded as theory) - constructionism
- it incorporates the meanings and interpretations, the motives and intentions = elevates these into the central place in social theory and research

The role of the researcher to gain insight into the social actor’s ”insider” view

 - This view is the proper view rather than imposing the researcher’s “outsider" view
 - The researcher has the obligation to understand this insider’s view and report on it - it tries to represent descriptions and understanding that reflect the social actor’s point of view rather than adopting entirely the researcher’s point of view 
 - the researcher has to often use procedures that encourage the reflection of social actors of their social life (much of it is taken for granted, conducted in unreflective attitude) —> social actors are forced to search for/construct meanings and interpretations

Giddens:
= the fundamental subject matter of the social sciences ==> mutual knowledge between social actors and making sense of their social reality

Start:

• begins with describing activities and meanings (how social actors understand and interpret their own actions, other’s actions, social situations)
• deriving categories and technical concepts from them (form understanding) - it has to be conducted in a technical language and social actors have to give feedback of its authenticity (=member checking)
• we can elaborate and refine this understanding - using Abductive RS with other social actors in the same context; or we can take the understanding and translate it into a form and work further with Deductive or Retroductive RS

Question 9

ONTOLOGICAL ASSUMPTIONS

Answer 9

= Theory of the nature of social reality - What exists ? What is real ?
- what kind of social phenomena can or cannot exist, conditions of their existence, their relations
How does the researcher see the world ?

6 types - Shallow realist, Conceptual realist, Cautious realist, Depth realist, Idealist, Subtle realist

Realist (Nomothetic - Farquhar)

• reality is independent of observer - our perceptions are irrelevant
• only what we can observe (experience with senses) is relevant/true
• observable phenomena have patterns and sequences and the challenge for science is to discover and describe them

Idealist (Ideographic - Farquhar)

• reality is constructed by the observer - researchers can only understand the reality by understating those observing it
• reality is a collection of interpretations that social actors produce and reproduce

Question 10

EPISTEMOLOGICAL ASSUMPTIONS (ER-FN-CC)

Answer 10

= Theory of knowledge
- What is knowledge ? How do we create knowledge ?
How does the researcher knows what he/she knows ?

(empiricism) We only create knowledge when verified by our senses
- a neutral, trained observer can arrive at knowledge
- knowledge is an accurate representation of the external world

(rationalism) Logic and mathematics used to judge knowledge
- direct examination of human thought creates knowledge

(falsification) Knowledge is true if we can’t prove it false (because we are unable to observe reality directly, we have to test theories by trying to falsify them rather than confirm)
- knowledge is produced by a process of trial and error - theories are proposed and tested against empirical evidence

(new/neo-realism) Knowledge may require formulation of structures and/or mechanisms to explain regularities

• knowledge is derived from the structures and mechanisms that produce them
• this process goes beyond surface appearance

(constructionism) Knowledge comes about from our daily actions and scientists interpreting such behavior into technical language

(conventionalism) Theories are only used by scientists to describe reality (=> theories are not real - they are just a tool); judgment is used to defend theoretical choice
- scientific theories are created by scientists as convenient tool for dealing with the world