Philosophy of science exam questions + pt 2

Question 1

Define the value-free ideal of science.

Answer 1

According to the value-free ideal, good science should never rely on, or be influenced by, human
values like moral, social or political beliefs in assessing the evidence for scientific hypotheses.

Question 2

Normative claim

Answer 2

a claim that asserts that such-and-such OUGHT to be the case

Question 3

A scientific activity or project

Answer 3

Aims to create explanations about

Puts forward ideas that can be tested empirically

Updates ideas based on reliable evidence

Would abandon any idea that was thurroughly refuted

Applies mathematical tools when they are appropriate

Involves the broader scientific community

Question 4

How do you know which
similarities and idealizations matter
for learning about a target

Answer 4

robustness analysis:

Build slightly different models of same target

 Manipulate the models in comparable ways

 Compare models results
Blind monks examining an
elephant, an ukiyo-e print by

Question 5

What’s the point of robustness? (model)

Answer 5

Assess sensitivity of a model to
changes in its basic structure

Identify model features responsible for
certain results

Evaluate what similarities and idealizations
matter to learning about the world

Question 6

Dont trick yourself you dont understand lecture 7 at all so youre gonna have to do that at some other point without notecards

Question 7

Abduction

Answer 7

Inference to the best possible explanation

Hans engages in behaviours
y. The best scientific explanation for an
individual engaging in behaviours y is that
the individuals can do arithmetic. Therefore, Hans can do arithmetic.

Question 8

the ratio between your stake X (= how much you could lose) and
he total amount staked X + Y

Answer 8

You believe that a 3:1 odd is fair for a bet on the
truth of h (e.g., that you will pass this course).
If you bet that h is true, you win €1 (and get your
stake in return) if you are right, and lose €3 if wrong.
Your degree of belief in h is 3/(3 + 1) = 3/4

Question 9

Andrey Kolmogorov’s axioms of probability

Answer 9

Axiom 1: All probabilities are numbers
between 0 and 1
* Axiom 2: If a proposition is certainly true,
then it has a probability of 1. If
certainly false, then it has prob. 0.
* Axiom 3: If h and h* are exclusive
alternatives (they cannot both be
true at the same time),
then P(h or h) = P(h)+P(h)

Question 10

Dutch book

Answer 10

If your degrees of belief do not conform to the rules of probability, there are possible betting situations where you are guaranteed
to lose money (you fall prey of a Dutch book).

Question 11

Frequency interpretation of probability

Answer 11

The probability of an outcome is the
frequency with which the outcome
occurs in a long sequence of trials.

Question 12

Problem of single-case probabilities

Answer 12

Cannot assign probabilities to one-off events…

Question 13

Propensity interpretation of probability

Answer 13

The probability of an outcome is a propensity inherent in the physical
conditions producing the outcome.

E.g.
Being fragile is a causal disposition of glass

Question 14

Null Hypothesis Significance Testing

Answer 14

1. Formulate a null hypothesis e.g., This treatment is not effective
2. Develop expectations in the form of probability distributions for possible
   outcomes given the truth of hypothesis

E.g., if this treatment is not effective, then when I run an experiment, such and such
differences between control and treatment groups will be observed

3. Gather data/observations & Evaluate to what degree observed data violate expectations
4. Draw an inference from this comparison E.g., the data disprove the idea that the
   treatment makes no difference

Question 15

Basic idea of null hypothesis testing

Answer 15

Null Hyp (p) leads one to expect a certain range of possible outcomes (if p, then q)

When observed data are far outside that range (not-q), then we can reason such
data would be very unlikely if Null is true» data provide grounds for rejecting Null (not-p)

NOTE When fail to reject Null, that does not mean that Null is true

Question 16

Significance level

Answer 16

Decision about how improbable, given
the truth of the Null, an observed result
must be to warrant rejecting Null

Question 17

p-value

Answer 17

a number describing how likely it is that your data would have occurred under the null hypothesis of your statistical test.

Question 18

The Bayesian approach (method)

Answer 18

1) formulate hypothesis (e.g. H1: I am ill, H2: I am healthy

2) Assign a probability to each outcome

3) Gather data (e.g. test)

4) Evaluate the degree to which the data (dis)confirms the Hypothesis

5) Update probability of the hypothesis

Question 19

Bayes theorem

Answer 19

P(HlO) = P(OlH) * P(H)/P(O)

P(OlH): Conditional Probability of O given that H is true

Question 20

Advantages of Bayes theorem

Answer 20

1. Allows us to account for our previous knowledge of the world (priors)
   E.g., including information about prevalence of the disease2. Allows us to check how much the data confirms or disconfirms a hypothesis Much better than just rejecting H03. Informs us on how to adjust our beliefs in the different hypotheses

Question 21

Why bother about causation

Answer 21

To intervene and predict, so that we can stop bad things happening and make more good things happen

To explain why or how things happen

Question 22

Two variables C and E are causally related when

Answer 22

if the value of C changed,
the value of E would change too

Question 23

Causal Markov Condition

Answer 23

CMC) says that each
variable in a graph is independent of every other
variable (except its effects) conditional on all of its
direct causes

Question 24

Value-Free Ideal suggests that science is

Answer 24

a source of objective knowledge to the extent it is free from values

Question 25

Empirical claim

Answer 25

A statement is empirical if it can be either true or false.

Question 26

Normative claim

Answer 26

NORMATIVE claim, on the other hand, is a claim that asserts that such-and-such OUGHT to be the case.

Question 27

Describe three ways in which values can legitimately factor into science

Answer 27

What should scientists study?
How should we study it?
What are we trying to accomplish?
What if we are uncertain?
How should we talk about the results?

Question 28

Confounding variable

Answer 28

a third variable that influences both the independent and dependent variables

Question 29

randomization

Answer 29

Randomization is one approach to indirect variable control. It consists in a chance procedure (like
flipping a coin) for assigning experimental entities (e.g., humans, animals, objects etc) to either the
treatment group or the control group

Question 30

Random sampling

Answer 30

Random sampling consists in using a chance method for selecting a sample to investigate from the entire population

Question 31

Randomization

Answer 31

Once you have a sample to investigate, you may use randomization to distribute the sample between treatment and control group.

Question 32

falsificationist criterion

Answer 32

(i) any scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, which means that a hypothesis is scientific only if it is possible to say under what conditions that hypothesis will turn out to be
false, and (ii) any scientific hypothesis/theory should be open to falsification—and when shown
false, scientists should not retain it as true.

Question 33

Basic research

Answer 33

also called pure research or fundamental research, is a type of scientific research
with the aim of making new discoveries and improving scientific theories for better
understanding, explanation and prediction of phenomena of interest

Question 34

Applied research

Answer 34

Scientific research is applied when it exploits knowledge in order to develop some
product, like software, pharmaceutical drugs, new materials, or, in the case of climate science,
fully recyclable, energy-efficient batteries

Question 35

epistemic interpretation of
probability

Answer 35

the degree to which one proposition makes another plausible

Question 36

Normal science khun

Answer 36

the day-to-day research that scientists conduct in order to fill in the gaps in scientific knowledge that are found within the dominant paradigm

Question 37

paradigm

Answer 37

paradigm is a distinct set of concepts or thought patterns