philosophy Flashcards
what Is the difference between scientific knowledge and everyday knowledge
everyday knowledge comes from daily experiences and is based on what’s known or accepted, but scientific knowledge is gained through formal research, experiments, and a systematic process to understand the world and is based on evidence and testing
how can we be sure of scientific claim’s validity
scientific research can be tested
what is scrutiny (repeatability)
for a theory to be scientific another scholar should be able to repeat the research and reach the same conclusion
what is required for scientific research to be credible
controllability: the study must be repeatable (If someone else does the same study, they should get similar results) and transparent (open and honest)
what are 5 characteristics of scientific knowledge
- Generalisability - how useful the results of a study are for broader group of people or situations
- Controllability - research has to be repeatable and transparent
- Objectivity - scientific research should not depend on external pressures
- Recognised method - people have to trust in research method, so that results would be justified
- Parsimony (Aristotle) - favouring simpler, more straightforward explanations over complex ones if they both explain the same thing
what is the misconception with respect to the methods in management science
People tend to trust empirical research more than conceptual research because empirical studies are based on real data, observations, and tangible evidence.
which methods does empirical social research use
collecting and analysing actual information from the real world, which can provide concrete and measurable results
what about conceptual research
relies on theoretical frameworks, models, and abstract ideas.
what are theoretical concepts
concepts which require through philosophical thinking “organisations”, “firms”
what is the misconception 2
is that science only describes how things are, not how they should be (prescriptive at normative). But in management science, it’s not just about describing; it also suggests how things should be done. For instance, if a theory says managers should communicate regularly with shareholders, other managers may start doing the same.
what Is normative sense (hynya)
what would be the best
what is actual meaning (facts)
what is the best
what is the model of good reason of truth
a claim is true if the supporting reasons outweigh the opposing ones. But an argument isn’t automatically true just because it can’t be proven wrong.
Some common errors in reasoning for The good reason model of truth
- Argumentum ad ignorantiam
- “Petitio principii” or “begging the question”
- False dilemma
tell about Argumentum ad ignorantiam
This is when someone argues that something is true because there’s no proof of the opposite. (god exists)
tell about “Petitio principii” or “begging the question”
when someone uses an argument that assumes the truth of what they’re trying to prove. In other words, the argument’s conclusion is already included in the premises. It’s like saying something is true because it’s true, without providing additional evidence or support.
tell about False dilemma
presenting only two mutually exclusive options rather than the full, nuanced range of options. (If we don’t order pizza for dinner, we’ll have to eat the week-old spaghetti in the fridge.)
what are fallacies
defects in an argument that cause it to be invalid or weak. But fallacy-free argument is still not good or powerful
how the question “What is reasonable?” is understood in philosophy of science
Methodological question: question about correct methods of argumentation and research.
Epistemological question: question about the state of acquired knowledge.
Ontological question: question about the nature of social reality
what is methodology
science is looking for the best research methods in every discipline
tell about quantitive and qualitative research methods
Quantitive - uses data and statistical analysis
Qualitative - uses interviews, focus groups, and participant observation
tell about epistemological view
Epistemology deals with understanding what counts as knowledge. It’s about figuring out the difference between opinions, beliefs, and real knowledge.
tell about ontological view
Ontology looks at how things and phenomena exist in reality. For example, in the study of organisations, people debate whether an organisation is just the sum of the individuals in it or if it’s something more. Some think that organisations have their existence beyond just the people in them. Others believe that an organisation’s life is connected to the individuals within it.
why is social reality is different from reality of natural sciences
because reality in natural sciences can exist without human interaction (stones), but reality in social sciences exists because humans agreed it does (money)
what is Idealism🪄
suggests that everything we experience is a mental projection, an idea in our minds. According to idealists, things exist only if they’re observed or experienced. For example, George Berkeley believed that things like sounds exist only when someone experiences them. In this view, a falling tree in a deserted forest makes no sound because there’s no one there to hear it.
what is realism
proposes that things exist independently of us and our perceptions. Realists believe that reality is shaped beforehand and that our observations are influenced by our pre-existing knowledge and perceptions.
what is transcendental idealism
combination of idealism and realism (Immanuel Kant)
Being ecumenical means
willingness to promote unity and cooperation among different ways of reality perception and investigation. It involves fostering a spirit of understanding, dialogue, and collaboration between various branches.
who is Auguste Comte
Auguste Comte, the founder of sociology, introduced the term positivism in the 20th century.
what counts as knowledge according to positivism
only empirical (observative) and descriptive knowledge count as scientific ones
what is Empiricism
the idea that we learn things by seeing, touching, hearing, and experiencing them directly, rather than just relying on ideas or theories. It’s all about learning through our senses and real-life observations.
what is Rationalism
the belief that reason and logical thinking are the main sources of knowledge. Trusting our ability to think and reason to understand the world and gain knowledge, rather than relying solely on experiences or observation.
tell about Modern science
originated in the enlightenment period, 16th-17th centuries
who characterised Enlightenment and what was the slogan of that person
Enlightment was characterised by Kant and his slogan “dare to think”. The slogan marked acquisition and democratisation of knowledge.
who are also two great reformer of Enlightment period and what have they done
Martin Luther and John Calvin are two great reformers. They have decided that Bible should be accessible to people without guidance and perception of pritsts, so Luther have made translation of the Bible from latin to German. This is also the implemention of “dare to think”
what was Luther’s believe
in order to attain salvation one should not be dependent on the authority of others, but solely on their faith. “Through the faith only”
who believed that knowledge cannot be assessed through the Bible, but can be attained only via 2 human capabilities
Francis Bacon
1. Rational thinking
2. Learning from observation and experience
what is critical rationalism (Kant)
some knowledge can be gained only via critical reflection, reflections and limits of thinking itself
what is priori knowledge (before experience and observation)
what you know to be true without having to see it or experience it, just via looking at the definition of the word
what is analytic a priory knowledge
understanding the meaning of words and concepts without a need for empirical evidence
“ my brother is my male sibling”
here, the predicate(male sibling) is included into subject (brother)
what is synthetic a priory knowledge
one that needs empirical evidence or sensory evidence for its confirmation or denial. Does not have predicate included in the subject
“There is a church in my village” (is not true by definition)
what was rationalists purpose
they were emphasising that for science it is essential to dig dipper, uncover the complete set of causal mechanisms hidden behind reasoning(surface)
what is character of Newtonian mechanisms and geometry
character is a priori and synthetic and the same time
who laid the foundation of empiricism and what did he claim
David Hume started empiricism and was claiming that we should solely believe in things that can be observed. He was arguing with Kant about causality, since it is not observable, Hume just didn’t believe in its existence.
what is positivism
Positivism is an extreme of empiricism. Positivists claimed that science should be only based on what is observable, therefore they accepted only synthetic a priory knowledge, which requires empirical evidence. However, positivists believed in independent reality, that things are happening in the world even if human is not watching them (sounds)
logical positivism by Bertrand Russell
only knowledge that can be tracked back to observational data can be qualified as scientific knowledge
what is deduction
when someone gets specific conclusion out of general claims and laws (Sherlock Holmes)
what is syllogism
the diagram of reasoning that is used for deduction
- Major premise, X and Y (all ravens are black)
-Manor premise, P is X (P is raven)
- Conclusion, P is Y (P is black)
induction
getting general claims from specific observation
what is problem of induction
out of limited set of observations one can never get general principle of law with the full certainty
what is correspondence model of truth
a belief is true only if it corresponds with something that exists in the world
example: my belief that there is a table in the room is true only if there actually is a table in the room
what is coherence model of truth
a belief is true only if it coheres with not only my observation, but also with theoretical explanations
what are observable concepts
concepts that can be observed and measured
theoretical concepts
complex phenomena that cannot be measured easily (selfishness)
what are 3 conditions that a theoretical concept should have in order to be a good concept
- Robustness - concept should fit into more than one context
- Fit: the claims that are maid by concept should fit in more general theory
- Predictability: credible predictions about occurrence of the phenomenon must be made
what is coherence
function of mutual support, in coherence model of truth the claim is not only supported by observations, it should also be coherent with other arguments about how the claim should be understood and operationalised
how does the coherence model of truth give answer to the induction problem
since it’s not possible to generate trustworthy common scientific concept via only using limited source of observations (induction problem), the coherence model tells that observation should be supported by more reasons.
what is standard model of science
respect empiricism and rationalism at the same time
what is critical rationalism by Popper
popper claimed that searching for confirmation theories to fix the problem of induction is not right thing to do. He introduced the opposing way to solve the problem: Critical rationalism.
what is falsification
falsifying the claims and theories,
what is critical rationalism
the believe that pure science is obtained by falsifying claims and theories
how is scientific knowledge distinguished from non-scientific
Scientific knowledge can be tested, reviewed and probably falsified. But non-scientific knowledge because it either expresses theories which can be never untrue (tautologies) either claims are filled with content and too general (can’t be tested)
can observations lead to confirmation or falsification of a claim?
No. Observations can never lead to falsification or confirmation of a claim (it can not be accepted that people are not selfish just because Maria Tereza existed)
what did Thomas Kuhn discovered about growth of scientific knowledge
the process of growth of scientific knowledge is not stable, it goes via changing periods of CONSOLIDATION (steady growth) and REVOLUTION
what is paradigm
the unique discovery which appears within one of the schools, when different schools exist next to each other and conduct different ways of research
what 4 characteristics does paradigm contain
- Fundamental theories (theories that all scientists agree to)
- Breakthroughs (paradigm itself), which will function as example for new theories
- Shared scientific values (openness and transparency about methods)
- Shared methodological regulations (Scientists in a paradigm follow the same rules for how they do things)
what is normal science
when scientists agree within this broadened paradigm on the problems, the bet way of conducting research and recognition of scientific rules
how does paradigm function
paradigm is taken for granted as the basis of scientific work
what is phlogiston theory
the theory about the phenomenon that when something was burning, the substance phlogiston was realised, which was absorbed by the air. So, no burning could take place in vacuum chamber. This is first paradigm in chemistry.
what is anomaly
a very different occurrence than what would not be expected based on accepted theory
why is idea of Kuhn about mutually exclusive paradigms is outdated
because different theories have different advantages and disadvantages, theories can exist alongside each other
what are 3 points on which type of research depends
- The question asked
- The object or concept which is studied
- The purpose of the study
by which two question can type of research be distinguished
- What is the NATURE of the study: this could be explaining phenomena and understanding the phenomena
- What is the LEVEL of analyses: individual level or level of organisations, systems
what is the approach of methodological individualism
when the behaviour of individuals is seen as independent from the community (individuals determine what society is)
on which approach is methodological individualism based
it is based on ontological individualism
what is ontological individualism
a view that no supra-individual entity (like organisation) exists in reality; only individuals and their actions are real
what are 2 levels of character of the research
- Micro
- Macro
what are 2 main types of research for defining the character of research
- Perspective of spectator
- Perspective of participant
tell about perspective of spectator
explains behaviour of individuals at the macro level (external causes of behaviour)
tell about perspective of participant
not only explaining the behaviour, but also understanding the behaviour (reasons behind the behaviour)
what is the difference of “perspective of spectator” and “perspective of participant”
if you adopt perspective of spectator, your goal is to find reasons and links between phenomena, but if u follow perspective of participant you put yourself onto the shoes of individual and enable yourself to understand the internal reasons behind the behaviour
what is Hermeneutics (by Dilthey)
the art of interpretation, understanding the meanings. it searches for meaningful explanations behind the phenomena
what is used more often: perspective of spectator or perspective of participant
The perspective of spectator is used more often, since understanding the internal perspective of individuals might be very tricky (some people hide their motives due to external pressure, different individuals have different perspectives)
what is rational choice theory
way to apply methodological individualism. Via this theory one can understand the changes in institutions as the result of behaviour and interactions of rational individuals.
According to this theory, society is the result of cooperation between individuals who harmonise their behaviour to attain goals
why does rational choice theory corresponds to methodological individualism
because rational theory also tells that individuals determine society, not the other way around
why is cooperation a rational choice
because some things are created that could not have been created individually
what else does rational choice theory accept
it accepts that all people are perfectly rational individuals
why are people perfectly rational individuals
- the preferences of people are ordered according priority
- people have information about all outcomes and options
- people can calculate the best mix of results
why are some assumptions of rational choice theory are not always applicable
because in some situations individuals are not able to identify all possible options and outcomes of their actions
what is expected utility
tool used to determine the rationality of choice.
AMOUNT OF PREFERENCE * CHANCE THAT OPTION WILL OCCURE
what is game theory (by John von Neumann)
application of rational choice theory. used to model and analyse human interactions. Analyses situations in which the choices of people are independent, means they depend on other members of society. (the result of individuals behaviour depends on the behaviour of others)
what is strategic rationality
people foresee the choices of others to the best of their ability (game rock, paper, scissors)
what is coordination in the Game theory
involves 2 individuals, both with two choice options, but 4 possible outcomes (Nash equilibrium and Pareto possible outcomes)
what is Nash equilibrium
no choice can be changed in the favour of other players
If player changes his own choice, it won’t benefit either, as he is satisfied with the current state.
Pareto possible outcomes
no choice can be changed without harming other players
if player will change his choice, he will harm at leat one player
what Is the problem with rational choice theory
the human behaviour is studied from the spectators objective (agents), but at the same time draws conclusions from the participants objectives (actors)
in which two ways Welfare economist use the concept of preference
- Behaviourist conception: consumers choose things they prefer, so that their choices reflect their true preferences
- Mentalist conception: consumers prefer what they are most comfortable with and what gives them most pleasure
what is methodological collectivism based on
assumes that actions of individuals are determined by society. methodological collectivism is based on ontological holism
what does ontological holism mean
Tells that whole Is more than just a sum of individual parts. (all opposite to the ontological individualism)
what was the point of view of Emile Durkheim on the ontological holism and methodological collectivism
he argued that a community is reality of its own(not just sum of individuals).
According to Durkhem, it is not individual behaviour that explains society, but it is the society that develops a culture that determines the actions and thoughts of individuals.
what about macro level corresponding to methodological collectivism
macro level claims that individuals role is not that important, it says that individuals are the ones influenced by the community and organisation
what is functional explanation
explanation of the behaviour of something by looking at the function or purpose of this behaviour within a contextual whole
what is the difference between functionality and causality
Causality - assesses events proceeding a phenomenon
Functionality - assesses the goal a phenomenon serves
example:
phenomenon: singing bird
causality: birds nervous system
functionality: seducing female birds
why functional explanations = system explanations
because functional explanations explore goals which individual follows in order to fulfil the system in which he functions
what is the functional (systematic) explanation of crime by Durkheim
The goal of crime is to keep society healthy, via levelling up the solidarity between people, making contrast between civilians and criminals.
what are problems with functional (systematical) explanations
Problem 1: Assumed goal of social phenomena, such as criminality. Durkhem claims that society’s ultimate goal is balance and unity. However, there is no empirical basis for this.
Problem 2: Functionalism explains things by their purpose (goal), not their cause. So it uses teleological metaphysical explanations, not the causal metaphysical explanations.
what are teleological metaphysical explanations
same with functionality, explain the goal for which a phenomenon happens
what are causal metaphysical explanations
same with causality, explain processes proceeding the phenomenon
how can one take perspective of participant in the macro level
one can try to understand the phenomena by taking part in social practises, that is the only way to understand what is important within a group
(considering that participant here symbolises the group, rather than individual)
what is the difference between following the rules (rule-following behaviour) and acting in accordance with rules (regular or patterned behaviour)
- Following the rules (rule-following behaviour): This is when you consciously do something because a rule tells you to.
- Acting in accordance with rules (regular or patterned behaviour): This is when you do something regularly, but it might not be because a strict rule forces you. For example, if you always eat a sandwich for breakfast, it’s a regular behavior, but there might not be a strict rule making you do it.
why normatively (acting with in accordance with rules) always assumes fallibility
one is not acting in accordance with the rule if there is no possibility of failing the rule. Rules only function as norms when there is possibility of failure
what is symbolic interactionism
the task of symbolic interactionism is to reveal what is normal. Instead of creating norms, people absorb the norms which are prevalent is specific culture
