philosophy Flashcards
what Is the difference between scientific knowledge and everyday knowledge
everyday knowledge comes from daily experiences and is based on what’s known or accepted, but scientific knowledge is gained through formal research, experiments, and a systematic process to understand the world and is based on evidence and testing
how can we be sure of scientific claim’s validity
scientific research can be tested
what is scrutiny (repeatability)
for a theory to be scientific another scholar should be able to repeat the research and reach the same conclusion
what is required for scientific research to be credible
controllability: the study must be repeatable (If someone else does the same study, they should get similar results) and transparent (open and honest)
what are 5 characteristics of scientific knowledge
- Generalisability - how useful the results of a study are for broader group of people or situations
- Controllability - research has to be repeatable and transparent
- Objectivity - scientific research should not depend on external pressures
- Recognised method - people have to trust in research method, so that results would be justified
- Parsimony (Aristotle) - favouring simpler, more straightforward explanations over complex ones if they both explain the same thing
what is the misconception with respect to the methods in management science
People tend to trust empirical research more than conceptual research because empirical studies are based on real data, observations, and tangible evidence.
which methods does empirical social research use
collecting and analysing actual information from the real world, which can provide concrete and measurable results
what about conceptual research
relies on theoretical frameworks, models, and abstract ideas.
what are theoretical concepts
concepts which require through philosophical thinking “organisations”, “firms”
what is the misconception 2
is that science only describes how things are, not how they should be (prescriptive at normative). But in management science, it’s not just about describing; it also suggests how things should be done. For instance, if a theory says managers should communicate regularly with shareholders, other managers may start doing the same.
what Is normative sense (hynya)
what would be the best
what is actual meaning (facts)
what is the best
what is the model of good reason of truth
a claim is true if the supporting reasons outweigh the opposing ones. But an argument isn’t automatically true just because it can’t be proven wrong.
Some common errors in reasoning for The good reason model of truth
- Argumentum ad ignorantiam
- “Petitio principii” or “begging the question”
- False dilemma
tell about Argumentum ad ignorantiam
This is when someone argues that something is true because there’s no proof of the opposite. (god exists)
tell about “Petitio principii” or “begging the question”
when someone uses an argument that assumes the truth of what they’re trying to prove. In other words, the argument’s conclusion is already included in the premises. It’s like saying something is true because it’s true, without providing additional evidence or support.
tell about False dilemma
presenting only two mutually exclusive options rather than the full, nuanced range of options. (If we don’t order pizza for dinner, we’ll have to eat the week-old spaghetti in the fridge.)
what are fallacies
defects in an argument that cause it to be invalid or weak. But fallacy-free argument is still not good or powerful
how the question “What is reasonable?” is understood in philosophy of science
Methodological question: question about correct methods of argumentation and research.
Epistemological question: question about the state of acquired knowledge.
Ontological question: question about the nature of social reality
what is methodology
science is looking for the best research methods in every discipline
tell about quantitive and qualitative research methods
Quantitive - uses data and statistical analysis
Qualitative - uses interviews, focus groups, and participant observation
tell about epistemological view
Epistemology deals with understanding what counts as knowledge. It’s about figuring out the difference between opinions, beliefs, and real knowledge.
tell about ontological view
Ontology looks at how things and phenomena exist in reality. For example, in the study of organisations, people debate whether an organisation is just the sum of the individuals in it or if it’s something more. Some think that organisations have their existence beyond just the people in them. Others believe that an organisation’s life is connected to the individuals within it.
why is social reality is different from reality of natural sciences
because reality in natural sciences can exist without human interaction (stones), but reality in social sciences exists because humans agreed it does (money)
what is Idealism🪄
suggests that everything we experience is a mental projection, an idea in our minds. According to idealists, things exist only if they’re observed or experienced. For example, George Berkeley believed that things like sounds exist only when someone experiences them. In this view, a falling tree in a deserted forest makes no sound because there’s no one there to hear it.
what is realism
proposes that things exist independently of us and our perceptions. Realists believe that reality is shaped beforehand and that our observations are influenced by our pre-existing knowledge and perceptions.
what is transcendental idealism
combination of idealism and realism (Immanuel Kant)
Being ecumenical means
willingness to promote unity and cooperation among different ways of reality perception and investigation. It involves fostering a spirit of understanding, dialogue, and collaboration between various branches.
who is Auguste Comte
Auguste Comte, the founder of sociology, introduced the term positivism in the 20th century.
what counts as knowledge according to positivism
only empirical (observative) and descriptive knowledge count as scientific ones
what is Empiricism
the idea that we learn things by seeing, touching, hearing, and experiencing them directly, rather than just relying on ideas or theories. It’s all about learning through our senses and real-life observations.
what is Rationalism
the belief that reason and logical thinking are the main sources of knowledge. Trusting our ability to think and reason to understand the world and gain knowledge, rather than relying solely on experiences or observation.
tell about Modern science
originated in the enlightenment period, 16th-17th centuries
who characterised Enlightenment and what was the slogan of that person
Enlightment was characterised by Kant and his slogan “dare to think”. The slogan marked acquisition and democratisation of knowledge.
who are also two great reformer of Enlightment period and what have they done
Martin Luther and John Calvin are two great reformers. They have decided that Bible should be accessible to people without guidance and perception of pritsts, so Luther have made translation of the Bible from latin to German. This is also the implemention of “dare to think”
what was Luther’s believe
in order to attain salvation one should not be dependent on the authority of others, but solely on their faith. “Through the faith only”
who believed that knowledge cannot be assessed through the Bible, but can be attained only via 2 human capabilities
Francis Bacon
1. Rational thinking
2. Learning from observation and experience
what is critical rationalism (Kant)
some knowledge can be gained only via critical reflection, reflections and limits of thinking itself
what is priori knowledge (before experience and observation)
what you know to be true without having to see it or experience it, just via looking at the definition of the word
what is analytic a priory knowledge
understanding the meaning of words and concepts without a need for empirical evidence
“ my brother is my male sibling”
here, the predicate(male sibling) is included into subject (brother)
what is synthetic a priory knowledge
one that needs empirical evidence or sensory evidence for its confirmation or denial. Does not have predicate included in the subject
“There is a church in my village” (is not true by definition)
what was rationalists purpose
they were emphasising that for science it is essential to dig dipper, uncover the complete set of causal mechanisms hidden behind reasoning(surface)
what is character of Newtonian mechanisms and geometry
character is a priori and synthetic and the same time
who laid the foundation of empiricism and what did he claim
David Hume started empiricism and was claiming that we should solely believe in things that can be observed. He was arguing with Kant about causality, since it is not observable, Hume just didn’t believe in its existence.
