Philosophical Framework of Measurement Flashcards
Chapter 6
Who developed the scientific method
2 people
- Nicolaus Copernicus
- Galileo Galilei
What is the “most” important feature about the scientific method?
It is systematic
What does it mean when we say the scientific method is systematic?
It should be based on agreed rules & processes that are rigorously adhered to and that are used to evaluate research
Explain deductive reasoning?
Investigation that begins with a general idea to formulate a theory and testable hypothesis (hypothesis tested by data)
Explain inductive reasoning
Starting with data collection and observations to build ideas and testable hypotheses to test with further observations
What is the dominant philosophy underlying quantitative scientific methods?
Positivism
What does positivism assume?
2 points
- That phenomena are measurable using the deductive principles of the scientific method
- Human behaviour can be observed & measured using principles of natural and physical sciences
Why is it important to consider the theoretical perspectives or paradigms associated with different branches of scientific inquiry?
2 points
- Because they create assumptions that research questions are based on
- provide frameworks for interpreting observations
provide a way of looking at the world
Scientific research aims for “objectivity” by limiting external influences that can affect what 2 principles?
Think epi class
- Validity
- Reliability
If a multicausal model of causation considers a variety of factors, why can it be problematic, particularly in regards to epidemiology?
Variables (or causal factors) may be drawn or left out based on social values of different stakeholders (researchers values particularly important). Example of this with HIV research and policy, where social factors such as homosexuality were objectively presented as a cause of disease.
What process involves investigators evaluating their perceptions of situations critically (and thus considering the contexts of their work)?
Reflective understanding
When was inductive inference formalized and by whom?
In the seventeenth century by Francis Bacon
What was Francis Bacons argument surrounding deductive logic?
That it could not be predictive without the results of inductive inference first
What 2 things did John Locke do?
- Popularised inductive methods
- Helped establish empiricism
Define Empiricism
When inductive reasoning was unable to provide methods for proving “cause and effect” what logic was popularized?
Probabalistic Inductive Logic
What logic generally explains how there is a high or low probability that X causes Y, rather than a universal law?
Probabilistic Inductive Logic
What did Karl Popper propose about scientific hypotheses and knowledge accumulation?
He proposed that scientific hypotheses can never be proven to be true, so we can only make testable hypothese that can attempt to be disproven by research. Thus, knowledge is accumulated by falsification.
Explain the hypothetico-deductive method?
Method of inquiry in which scientific progress is a matter of eliminating falsehoods (incorrect hypotheses) rather than establishing truth
What underlies the contemporary scientific method?
The hypothetico-deductive method
What is a criticism of the hypothetico-deductive method by Brown?
Hypothesis falsification is not a certain process because it depends on observations that may uknowingly be biased or involve error
How did positivists approach the criticisms of the hypothetico-deductive method? Explain, and give an example.
Via operationalism, which establishes that specific concepts are to be defined by the indicators used to measure them. I.e. Psychological health established via a depression and anxiety measurement scale.
What is the problem with operationalism in regards to study accuracy?
There are problem with validity and ensuring that measures measure what they are supposed to, and do so accurately
True or false: Practicing the scientific method follows the values of the scientific method rigidly.
False. The scientific method in practice is far less rigid and goes beyond the hypothetico-deductive method.
Why has the scientific method been interpreted liberally more oftne than not?
To avoid restricting hypotheses to testable predictions, whould would seriously limit the scope of research.
What ability is held to be the foremost quality of science?
The ability to make correct predictions
List Hill’s causal postulates
- Strength of association
- Repeatability
- Cause and effect (specificity; this x causes this one y)
- Temporal sequence
- Dose-response relationship (biologic gradient)
- Plausability
Rothman argued against Hill’s postulates, saying that researchers needed to recognize what?
The impossibility of proving causality
Explain what a paradigm shift is?
The accumulation of evidence that challenges the dominant paradigm, leading to the gradual realisation that the current paradigm is inadequate, leading to a “scientific revolution” towards the new paradigm.
How do paradigm shifts happen, according to Kuhn? Give an example.
They typically happen through social change and propoganda, rather than based on actual science or scientific events. I.e. the guy that “discovered” the importance of handwashing as a physician was admitted into an asylum, even though years later people realized he was right. This was do more to social acceptance than the presentation of the science itself.
What does “value-free” science mean?
“Objective” science free from contextual beliefs
Why are social sciences based associations typically probabilistic?
Because social phenomena is complex and it is nigh impossible to control for all confounding variables in a natural/observational setting
What is grounded theory?
The process of discovering theory from systematically gathered and analyzed data
Why is there a greater need to build theory inductively in the social sciences before deriving a predictive theory?
Because it is not always possible to control for confounders in the conditions that social phenomena occur
Explain functionalism
A positivist approach that focuses on social systems. I.e. illness conceptualized in relation to its impact on social systems
What do we call consequences that interfere with a social system and its values?
In functionalism
Dysfunctional
What do we call consequences that contribute to a social systems functioning?
Functional
Why is functionalism sometimes referred to as holistic science?
Because it assumes that individual phenomena can only be understood within the context of interactions and relationships of the wider social system
Determinism is sometimes interchangeably used with what approach?
Functionalism
Why are suicide statistics not considered value-free?
Because suicide is defined and contextualized based on where you are trying to get statistics from. I.e. countries with taboos on suicide may list cause of death on death certificates as something else
What is phenomenology?
when applied to social sciences
The emphasis that social “facts” are characterized & recognized by their “meaningfulness” to members of the social world.
What paradigm is phenomenology based on?
That “reality” is multiple, and socially constructed; Individuals assign meaning to perceptions & experiences
Why is the theory of social systems rejected by phenomenologists?
Because they view human action as a response to interaction with others and meanings specific to individuals rather than human action as a response to the system
Phenomenology is sometimes also called what?
Atomism
Why might phenomenologists not control for third variables in social science research that some would consider to be confounders?
Because they view research settings as unmanipulated and natural. Why control for something that is inherent to the social world?
What are the aims of Humanists?
To meaningfully understand the individual, human awareness, and the whole context of the social situation
Social scientists anchored in phenomenology are sometimes referred to as what 2 types?
- Humanists
- Interpretive Sociologists
What are interpretive sociologists beliefs of where meaning comes from?
That meaning arises through interaction and is not standardized across social and cultural groups
Explain ethnomethodologists
a phenomenological approach
Analyse how people see things and use social interaction to maintain a sense of reality
Explain social or symbolic interactionists
type of phenomenological approach
Focus on details of social behaviour; how we attach symbolic meanings to social interactions & experiences to create a sense of self
Explain Labelling/Reaction Theorists
Type of phenomenological approach
Drawing on interactionism to analyze how people interpret, act upon, and react to events and others; and the process that members of a society are labelled (i.e. as deviants)
What are the different branches of interpretive sociology collectively referred to as?
Social action theory
What is a common criticism of social action theorists?
- They have ignored how the distribution of resources and power effects people’s behaviour and attitudes
Large scale surveys and experiments are practiced in what methodologies?
2
Positivism & Scientific Methodology
In-depth, qualitative interviews & observations are practiced in what methodologies?
2
Phenomenological & Hermeneutic Approaches
What has been done increasingly more to avoid the traditional clashes between quantitative and qualitative paradigms?
A mix-methods approach that meetss in the middle of these two paradigms; drawing from both where appropriate.
