Pharmacogenetics and personalised medicine Metabolism and survival

Question 1

Metabolic Pathways

Answer 1

Integrated and controlled pathways of enzyme-catalyzed reactions within a cell. They can include reversible steps, irreversible steps, and alternative routes.

Question 2

Anabolic Reactions

Answer 2

Metabolic reactions that build up large molecules from smaller ones and require energy.

Question 3

Catabolic Reactions

Answer 3

Metabolic reactions that break down large molecules into smaller molecules and release energy.

Question 4

Protein Pores

Answer 4

Proteins embedded in membranes that allow specific molecules to pass through.

Question 5

Protein Pumps

Answer 5

Membrane proteins that use energy to move substances across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient.

Question 6

Enzymes

Answer 6

Proteins that act as biological catalysts to speed up chemical reactions in metabolic pathways.

Question 7

Induced Fit

Answer 7

The change in shape of an enzyme’s active site to better fit the substrate after the substrate binds.

Question 8

Active Site

Answer 8

The specific region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction.

Question 9

Activation Energy

Answer 9

The minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction.

Question 10

Competitive Inhibition

Answer 10

A form of enzyme inhibition where an inhibitor competes with the substrate for binding to the active site.

Question 11

Non-competitive Inhibition

Answer 11

A form of enzyme inhibition where an inhibitor binds to an enzyme at a site other than the active site, reducing its activity.

Question 12

Feedback Inhibition

Answer 12

A method of metabolic control where the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway.

Question 13

Cellular Respiration

Answer 13

A set of metabolic pathways that break down glucose to produce ATP.

Question 14

Glycolysis

Answer 14

The process of breaking down glucose into pyruvate, occurring in the cytoplasm, resulting in a net gain of ATP.

Question 15

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

Answer 15

The main energy carrier in cells, used to transfer energy from metabolic processes.

Question 16

Phosphorylation

Answer 16

The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule, often from ATP, which is crucial in energy transfer in cells.

Question 17

Pyruvate

Answer 17

The end product of glycolysis, which can be further metabolized in the presence of oxygen.

Question 18

Acetyl Coenzyme A

Answer 18

A molecule that conveys carbon atoms within the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) to be oxidized for energy production.

Question 19

Citric Acid Cycle

Answer 19

A series of enzyme-controlled reactions in the mitochondrial matrix that further break down acetyl CoA to produce ATP, carbon dioxide, and NADH.

Question 20

Dehydrogenase Enzymes

Answer 20

Enzymes that catalyze the removal of hydrogen atoms from a substrate during a reaction.

Question 21

NADH (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)

Answer 21

A coenzyme that carries electrons from glycolysis and the citric acid cycle to the electron transport chain.

Question 22

Electron Transport Chain

Answer 22

A series of protein complexes located in the inner mitochondrial membrane that transfer electrons and pump protons to create a gradient used to produce ATP.

Question 23

ATP Synthase

Answer 23

An enzyme embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane that synthesizes ATP as hydrogen ions flow through it.

Question 24

Fermentation

Answer 24

A metabolic process that converts pyruvate to lactate or ethanol and carbon dioxide in the absence of oxygen, producing less ATP than aerobic respiration.

Question 25

Lactate

Answer 25

A product of anaerobic respiration in animal cells, formed from pyruvate in the absence of oxygen.

Question 26

Ethanol

Answer 26

A product of anaerobic respiration in yeast and plant cells, formed along with carbon dioxide from pyruvate.

Question 27

Metabolic Rate

Answer 27

The amount of energy expended by an organism in a given time period, measured by oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production, and heat production.

Question 28

Conformers

Answer 28

Organisms whose internal environment is largely dependent on the external environment. They typically have low metabolic costs and a narrow range of ecological niches.

Question 29

Regulators

Answer 29

Organisms that maintain a constant internal environment regardless of external conditions, which allows them a wider range of ecological niches but requires more energy.

Question 30

Thermoregulation

Answer 30

The process by which organisms regulate their body temperature to maintain a stable internal environment.

Question 31

Negative Feedback

Answer 31

A regulatory mechanism in which a stimulus causes an opposite output in order to maintain an ideal level of whatever is being regulated.

Question 32

Hypothalamus

Answer 32

A region of the brain that acts as the body’s thermostat, regulating temperature by controlling responses such as sweating or shivering.

Question 33

Dormancy

Answer 33

A period in an organism’s life cycle when metabolic activity is reduced to save energy, often in response to adverse environmental conditions.

Question 34

Hibernation

Answer 34

A state of reduced metabolic activity and lowered body temperature that some animals enter during winter to conserve energy.

Question 35

Aestivation

Answer 35

A state of dormancy similar to hibernation that some animals enter during periods of high temperature or drought.

Question 36

Daily Torpor

Answer 36

A short-term state of decreased physiological activity in animals, usually with reduced body temperature and metabolic rate.

Question 37

Migration

Answer 37

The seasonal movement of animals from one region to another to avoid adverse conditions.

Question 38

Innate Behaviour

Answer 38

Behavior that is genetically hardwired and does not need to be learned.

Question 39

Learned Behaviour

Answer 39

Behavior that is acquired through experience or learning.

Question 40

Micro-organisms

Answer 40

Organisms, such as bacteria, archaea, and some eukaryotes, that are microscopic in size.

Question 41

Growth Media

Answer 41

Nutrient-rich substances used to culture micro-organisms, providing the raw materials for biosynthesis and energy.

Question 42

Sterility

Answer 42

The condition of being free from living microorganisms, essential for culturing microbes to prevent contamination.

Question 43

Lag Phase

Answer 43

The initial period of microbial growth where cells are adapting to the new environment and not yet dividing.

Question 44

Log/Exponential Phase

Answer 44

A period of rapid microbial growth where cells are dividing at a constant and maximum rate.

Question 45

Stationary Phase

Answer 45

A phase in microbial growth where the rate of cell division is equal to the rate of cell death due to nutrient depletion or waste accumulation.

Question 46

Death Phase

Answer 46

A phase in microbial growth where cells die at a logarithmic rate due to exhaustion of nutrients and accumulation of waste.

Question 47

Viable Cell Count

Answer 47

The number of living cells in a culture that are capable of growing and dividing.

Question 48

Total Cell Count

Answer 48

The total number of cells, both living and dead, in a culture.

Question 49

Mutagenesis

Answer 49

The process of inducing mutations in an organism’s DNA, often used to improve strains of micro-organisms.

Question 50

Recombinant DNA Technology

Answer 50

Techniques used to manipulate DNA to create recombinant DNA, which is then inserted into organisms to express new traits.

Question 51

Restriction Endonucleases

Answer 51

Enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences, used in genetic engineering to create recombinant DNA.

Question 52

Ligase

Answer 52

An enzyme that joins DNA fragments together by forming covalent bonds between nucleotides.

Question 53

Selectable Markers

Answer 53

Genes introduced into recombinant DNA that allow for the identification of successfully modified organisms by providing resistance to antibiotics or other selective agents.

Question 54

Origin of Replication

Answer 54

A specific DNA sequence where DNA replication begins, ensuring that recombinant DNA is copied within the host organism.

Question 55

Recombinant Plasmid

Answer 55

A small circular DNA molecule engineered to contain foreign DNA, used as a vector to transfer genetic material into a host cell.

Question 56

Artificial Chromosome

Answer 56

A vector used in genetic engineering that is large enough to carry larger pieces of DNA than plasmids, often used to introduce new genes into organisms.

Question 57

Recombinant Yeast Cells

Answer 57

Yeast cells that have been genetically modified using recombinant DNA technology to produce proteins that are inactive in bacteria but active in yeast.