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Personality & Intelligence > Personality Traits > Flashcards

Personality Traits Flashcards

1
Q

What are some historical influences on the trait approach?

A
  • Hippocrates (the four humours)
  • Immanuel Kant (dimensions)
  • Wilhelm Wundt (temperament and dimensions)
  • Francis Galton
    • founder of differential psychology,
    • personality should interact with biology in an observable manner
  • William Sheldon
    • Somatomorphy
    • Devised tests of personality through body type
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2
Q

What are the main premises of the trait approach to personality?

A
  • Personality exists
  • Personality is a probabilistic system
  • Personality has both quantity and quality properties
  • Need for scientific taxonomy (classification)
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3
Q

What are traits?

A
  • Traits are general dispositions that uniquely influence psychology
    • Traits are not directly observable but inferred from indicators
    • Traits do not determine behaviour but bias people towards certain behaviours
  • Every human possesses all traits to a certain extent
  • Development is generally assumed to end in early adult-hood
    • relatively stable over time and situation
  • Hierarchical arranged elements
    • dimensionally arranged
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4
Q

What is the difference between a trait and a state?

A
  • State = intensity of traits at a given point
    • Mood is a subclass of state
  • External event + trait = state
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5
Q

What is temperament?

A
  • Characteristic reaction patterns
    • biologically-based elements of personality
    • present in infancy and childhood
    • inherited subclass of personality dimensions
  • fuzzy distinction with personality traits
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6
Q

What are the forces that shape personality/traits?

A
  • Genetics
  • Evolution
    • evolutionary personality psychology
    • behavioural genetics
  • Environment
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7
Q

What are the methods and assumptions involved in measuring traits?

A
  • Assumptions
    • personality space is made-up of dimensions
    • dimensions are independent (orthogonal)
    • dimensions are finite
  • Statistics
    • factor analysis
    • reliability and validity assessment
  • Tests
    • Psychometric questionaires
    • Life history /peer review
    • physical (EEG, heart-rate, etc)
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8
Q

What was Allport’s definition of personality?

A
  • Personality is a dynamic system of traits that determine characteristic behaviour and thoughts (unique adjustments)
  • Personality is greater than the sum of its traits
    • organised whole
    • self-regulating
    • continually evolving
  • Personality is real not a construction or abstraction
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9
Q

What was the focus of Allports Humanistic trait theory?

A
  • Emphasis on the uniqueness of the person and individuality
  • idiographic approach
    • attempts to establish unique combination of traits that can best describe individual
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10
Q

What was Allport’s definition and classification of traits?

A
  • Traits are neuro-psychic structures disposing to certain action
    • rooted in nervous system
    • Unify stimulus and response: traits render diverse stimuli functionally equivalent on the basis of personality (consistency across scenarios)
  • Three types of traits:
    1. Cardinal: pervasive and dominant, not all individuals posses
    2. Central: set of traits that can best describe individual
    3. Secondary: traits that are of lesser importance to individual’s personality
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11
Q

What is Allports concept of the self?

A
  • Personal experience and purpose are unifying aspects of personality
  • Humans are rational, creative and self-reliant
  • Proprium: The Allportian self (ego)
    • is necessary, warm, central,
    • Has eight stages of development
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12
Q

What is Allports concept of motives?

A
  • Adult motives are not necessarily the result of fixations, infantile motivations or unconscious needs
  • Functional autonomy (of motives)
    • permits a relative divorce from the past - emphasis on present state
    • Perseverative functional autonomy:
      • depends on feedback mechanisms or biochemical processes i.e. smoking
    • Propriate functional autonomy
      • motives that develop as direct expression of wants/desires
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13
Q

What are the positives and negatives of Allports Humanistic Trait theory?

A
  • Negatives
    • largely neglects affect of environment
    • no standardised measurement to assess personality
    • largely ignores psychopathology
    • initially reduced the importance of common traits
    • impractical number of traits (4508)
  • Positives
    • founder of field of personality (separated from psychopathology )
    • proposed traits approach
    • proposed distinction between idiographic and nomothetic approaches
    • humans are active agents
      • opposing Freudian determinism
      • behavioural reductionism
    • Inspired humanistic/existential approach to personality
    • Pioneered psychology of religion
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14
Q

How did Cattell define personality and traits?

A
  • Personality
    • The characteristics of an individual that allow us to predict behaviour in given situation
  • Traits
    • Stable, long-lasting building blocks of personality that have predictive value
    • Combined actions of traits result in individual differences
    • Both environment and genetics important in development
      • Constitutional Traits genetically determined
      • Environmental-Mold Traits environmentally determined
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15
Q

In Cattells lexical approach, what is the difference between ability traits, temperament traits and dynamic traits?

A
  • Ability traits‘What we do’
    • how we do in certain situations how well achieve goals e.g. intelligence
  • Temperament traits‘How we do it’
    • Styles adopted when pursuing goals
    • Highly heritable
  • Dynamic traits‘Why we do it’
    • e.g. ambitious, competitive
    • Three types
      1. Attitudes: constructs that express particular interests
      2. Sentiments: deeper aggregate of attitudes e.g. values, religiosity
      3. Ergs: innate drives
    • Dynamic Lattice
      • Organised complexity of dynamic traits ‘subsidiation’
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16
Q

In Cattell’s lexical approach what is the difference between surface traits and source traits?

A
  • Surface traits
    • Directly Observable
    • Cluster together and have high intercorrelation
    • First order traits (personality is hierarchical)
  • Source traits
    • Latent Major dimensions of personality
    • Second order traits
    • Consist of clusters of first order traits
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17
Q

What is Cattell’s Specification Equation?

A

Personality is the sum of weighted traits

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18
Q

What are the six developmental stages in Cattell’s Lexical theory?

A
  • 0-6: influenced by parents and siblings
  • 6-14: independence from parents identification with peers
  • 14-23: emotional disorders delinquency conflict of drives for sex, independence and self-assertion
  • 23-50: productive and satisfying time
  • 50-65: personality developments in response to physical changes
  • 65-death adjustment to losses
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19
Q

What is the Lexical Hypothesis?

A
  • If individual differences are important, they should be encoded in language through trait descripters (Galton)
  • Assumes:
    • frequency of word use => importance of trait
    • number of synonyms => importance of difference
    • cross-culture presence => importance/universality of traits
20
Q

How have the established traits developed in the lexical approach?

A
21
Q

What are the L, Q and T sources of data Cattell used to devise his 16 PFs?

A
  • L-data (Life record data)
    • typically peer ratings
  • Q-data (questionnaire data)
    • self-report
  • T-data (test data)
    • objective tests in standardised conditions
22
Q

What are the positives and negatives of Cattell’s lexical trait theory?

A
  • Positives
    • first viable psychometric assessment of personality
    • major contribution to mathematical psychology
    • proposed state-trait dichotomy
    • data gave rise to 5-factor model of personality
  • Negatives
    • inability to replicate the structure of 16PF
    • absolute reliance on factor analysis and statistics
    • controversial comments
    • beyondism : religion based on evolutionary theory the fittest should inherit the earth
23
Q

In what ways did 5 recur in personality research?

A
  • 5 factor models recurred across personality research
    • Fiske(1949), Norman (63’), Cattell (57’) etc.
  • Goldberg; English language ‘trait descriptors’
      1. Power (surgency)
      1. Love (agreeableness)
      1. Work (conscientiousness)
      1. Affect (emotional stability)
      1. Intellect
24
Q

What was Goldbergs assessment of the 5 personality dimensions?

A
  • The Abridged Big Five-Dimensional Circumplex
    • A circular model of personality
    • Each pair of big 5 factors compromises own circle
    • When factor loaded, most items have two factor loadings (rather than one)
      • When mapped onto 2D planes = polygon
        *
25
Q

How was the OCEAN model developed and how is it structured?

A
  • Costa and McCrae
    • Instead of factor analysing the 16PF they cluster analysed it
    • Originally found only 3 dimensions: NEO Index
      • Openness, Extraversion, Neuroticism
      • Later added in Agreeableness and Conscientiousness
  • Structure of OCEAN
    • Hierachical factoral arrangement
    • Personality dimensions are orthogonal
    • Personality dimensions each consist of 6 facets (traits)
  • Probably the most validated personality arrangment in academia
  • The NEO-PI-R (revised index) is the most common psychological profiling tool
26
Q

What is factor one in the OCEAN model and its 6 facets?

A
  • Factor 1 is Extroversion: relates to degree of having social impact
  • Six facets:
      1. Gregarious
      1. Warmth
      1. Assertiveness
      1. Activity
      1. Excitement seeking
      1. Positive emotion
  • Behavioural corelates
    • Typically has prominence in social organisations
  • 0.36 heritability
27
Q

What is factor 2 in the OCEAN model?

A
  • Factor 2 is Neuroticism/emotionality = relates to anxiety and distress, emotional control/stability
  • Six facets:
      1. Anxiety
      1. Anger/Hostility
      1. Depression
      1. Self-consciousness
      1. Impulsiveness
      1. Vulnerability (stress)
  • Behavioural corelated:
    • typically poor marriage/academic performance
  • 0.31 heritability
28
Q

What is factor 3 in the OCEAN model?

A
  • Factor 3 is Agreeableness = relates to maintaining positive relations with others
  • Six facets:
      1. Trust
      1. Straightforwardness
      1. Altruism
      1. Compliance
      1. Modesty
      1. Tender-mindedness
  • Behavioural corelates: typically have good conflict resolution strategies and social support
  • 0.28 heritability
29
Q

What is factor 4 in the OCEAN model?

A
  • Factor 4 is conscientiousness = relates to will to achieve
  • Six facets:
      1. Competence
      1. Order
      1. Dutifulness
      1. Achievement Striving
      1. Self-discipline
      1. Deliberation
  • Behavioural corelates: Typically has higher academic achievement
  • 0.28 heritability
30
Q

What is factor 5 in the OCEAN model?

A
  • Factor 5 is openness = relates to acquisition of (openness to) new experience, curiosity, intelligence
    • Least consensus about meaning
  • Six facets:
      1. Fantasy
      1. Aesthetics
      1. Attendance to Feelings
      1. Actions
      1. Ideas (curiosity)
      1. Values
  • Behavioural corelates: typically show greater engagement with existential challenges and artistic expression
  • 0.46 heritability
31
Q

What aspects of the OCEAN model give it psychometric value?

A
  • Internal consistency
    • normative internal consistencies between .70 and .85
  • Cross-culture replicability
    • Emic approach: bottom up, people first
    • Etic approach: top down, theory first
  • Good temporal stability
    • 6 year retest reliabilities: generally between .75 and .85, lower for agreeableness
  • use in psychopathology
    • Pattern profiles can be fitted to certain psychopathologies, particularly personality disorders (borderline, avoidant, schizoid)
32
Q

What are the positives and negatives of the Big Five personality model?

A
  • Positives
    • most common used in personality research
    • immediate applications in health and occupations
    • good psychometric properties
  • Negatives
    • disagreement on exact nature of factors
    • dimensions not completely orthogonal
    • no theoretical basis
    • is openness a dimension of personality?
    • Honesty-humility as a dimension? (the Big 6?)
    • circular reasoning
    • descriptive taxonomy (classification)
33
Q

What is Eysencks Big 3 trait typology?

A
  • A psychobiological approach to personality
  • After revisiting old theories of the four humours, and looking at psychological and biological data proposed 3 main traits
  • Big 3
    • Neuroticism
    • Extroversion
    • Psychoticism
34
Q

What is Neuroticism in Eysenck’s Big 3 typology?

A
  • Related temperament: emotionality
  • Related traits:
    • anxiety, depression, feelings of guilt, low self-esteem, tenseness, irrationality, moodiness, worry, fearfulness, obsessive indecision
  • Predicts stres related disorders
    • High neurotic individuals are consistently more prone to developing stress-related disorders, especially after experiencing traumatic events
35
Q

What is Extroversion in Eysenck’s big 3 typology?

A
  • Related temperament: inhibition
  • Related traits:
    • sociability, liveliness, activity, impulsiveness, assertiveness
  • High scores predict
    • Extraverts are characterised by leadership, initiative, and readiness to assume responsibility
    • Are also predisposed to accidents and injuries
  • Low Scores predict
    • Introverts tend to be persistent, co-operative and careful
36
Q

What is Psychoticism in Eysencks big 3 typology?

A
  • Tough- vs. tender-mindedness
  • A compound dimension of (primarily) psychopathy and psychoticism (proper)
  • Applies to all people but not commonly very pronounced
  • Related traits:
    • aggressiveness, impulsiveness, coldness, egocentrism, impersonality, antisocial behaviour, creativeness, stubbornness
  • Predicts
    • Highly psychotic people tend to be solitary, are often troublesome and outcasts, sexually perverse, lacking in feeling and empathy,
    • HIgh psychoticism also predicts geniuses
    • A predisposition to a psychotic and antisocial disorders
37
Q

In Eysenck’s Arousal Theory, what is the Cortico-Reticular Loop?

A
  • The neural pathway related to extraversion
  • Supports information processing
    • regulates information/stimulus, maintains alertness, concentration
  • Activity is associated with increased cortical arousal
    • autonomic nervous system involved
  • Over-arousal linked to Introverts:
    • Rumination/high stimulation from small environmental factors
    • Introverts display lower excitement
    • Introverts display low-inhibitory nature (can’t turn off the overthinking)
  • Linked to memory
    • Introverts LTM
    • Extroverts STM
38
Q

In Eysencks Arousal theory what is the Visero-Cortical Loop?

A
  • The neural pathway related to neuroticism
  • Controls subjective and emotional responses
    • more excitable in neurotics
  • Sympathetic hyperactivity
    • positive feedback of nervous activity actives sympathetic response
    • increases future susceptibility
    • therefore neurotics respond more to own neurotic disposition rather than stimulus
39
Q

What explains Psychoticism in Eysencks Arousal theory?

A
  • Psychoticism has particularly high heritability rates
  • There are several biological markers
    • serotonin
    • dopamine
    • platelet monoamine oxidase (MAOs)
  • Weakened excitatory and inhibitory regulation in the nervous system
40
Q

In Gray’s Reinforcement Sensistivity theory, what is the Behaviour Inhibition System (BIS)?

A
  • Behaviour Inhibition System (BIS) interrupts on-going behaviour to prepare the individual to deal with potentially threatening stimuli
    • Inhibits other responses, orients attention to potential threat and raises arousal
    • Avoids punishment
  • It is activated more in anxious people
    • Trait anxiety (High N, low E & P)
  • Recently a new subsystem has been proposed, the Fight-Flight-Freeze (FFFS), responsible for fear-regulation
41
Q

In Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity theory, what is the Behavioural Approach system (BAS)?

A
  • The behavioural approach system is the reward seeking system
    • involves dopaminergic fibres
    • Controls approach to potentially beneficial and appetitive stimuli
  • Considered substrate for impulsivity and optimism
    • impulsivity = lack of planning
      • high N,E and P
    • optimism = high self-esteem and life satisfaction
      • Low N and P, high E
  • Impulsivity is not necessarily caused by underarousal, but by sensitivity
42
Q

How does Grays sensitivity theory fit with Eysencks Arousal theory?

A
43
Q

What is Zuckerman’s Psychobiological theory?

A
  • Criticised Eysenck and Gray for oversimplification - ignoring other systems(endocrine), unequal weighting of systems and interactions between systems
  • Developed a psychobiological hierachy
  • Alternative big 5 based on biology
    1. Extraversion (sociability): associated with sensitivity to reward, similar to Gray
    2. Neuroticism (anxiety): sensitivity to punishment, emotional and epinephrine arousal
    3. Psychoticism (impulsive): psychopathy, sensation seeking, act for sake of excitement lack of behavioural restraint
    4. Agression (hostility): readiness to express verbal agression, temper
    5. Activity: need for general activity, impatience, seek challenge
44
Q

What is Zuckermans Psychophysiological hierachy?

A
  1. Supertraits - the big 5
  2. Traits - sociability, general emotions
  3. Cognitive/behavioural - expectations, desires
  4. Psychophysiology - adrenal arousal, cortical inhibition
  5. Neurotransmitters/enzymes/hormones
45
Q

Name 5 sources of empirical evidence for the psychobiological approach to personality

A
  1. ElectroEncephaloGraphy (EEG)
    • introverts have higher cortical arousal
    • introverts have higher alpha waves
  2. ElectroDermal Activity (EDA)
    • high sensation seekers get more aroused with intense stimulation
    • introverts become less aroused with caffeine (threshold?)
  3. Heart Rate Variability
    • in stressful situation introverts have higher heart rates
  4. Functional Brain Scanning
    • association between dopamine production and BAS
  5. Hormones
    • Prenatal testosterone produces higher aggresion levels, effect stronger in boys than girls
46
Q

What are some potential limitations of psychophysiological research?

A
  • Methodological
    • limited understanding of the systems involved, instrumental limitation
  • Evoked Potential
    • extraverts seek arousal when bored, compounds arousal measures
  • Transmarginal Inhibition of CNS
    • de-arousal tendency when experiencing intense stimulation low boundaries in introverts
  • Plasticity
    • neurobiological systems can change often as a result of experience
47
Q

What are some of the positives and negatives of Psychobiological theories of personality?

A
  • Positives
    • first theories to describe biological correlates of personality
    • first causal theories
    • first theories to link normal and abnormal personality (dimensional approach)
    • direct application to mental disorders
    • ‘birth’ of modern clinical psychology
  • Negatives
    • disagreement on exact number of biological systems involved
    • assessment of traits becomes impractical
    • Eysneck’s psychoticism dimension is not well-defined and unreliable
    • biological underpinning needs further explanation
    • only explain 40% of variance

Personality & Intelligence (6 decks)

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