Personality Traits Flashcards
What are some historical influences on the trait approach?
- Hippocrates (the four humours)
- Immanuel Kant (dimensions)
- Wilhelm Wundt (temperament and dimensions)
- Francis Galton
- founder of differential psychology,
- personality should interact with biology in an observable manner
- William Sheldon
- Somatomorphy
- Devised tests of personality through body type
What are the main premises of the trait approach to personality?
- Personality exists
- Personality is a probabilistic system
- Personality has both quantity and quality properties
- Need for scientific taxonomy (classification)
What are traits?
- Traits are general dispositions that uniquely influence psychology
- Traits are not directly observable but inferred from indicators
- Traits do not determine behaviour but bias people towards certain behaviours
- Every human possesses all traits to a certain extent
- Development is generally assumed to end in early adult-hood
- relatively stable over time and situation
- Hierarchical arranged elements
- dimensionally arranged
What is the difference between a trait and a state?
- State = intensity of traits at a given point
- Mood is a subclass of state
- External event + trait = state
What is temperament?
- Characteristic reaction patterns
- biologically-based elements of personality
- present in infancy and childhood
- inherited subclass of personality dimensions
- fuzzy distinction with personality traits
What are the forces that shape personality/traits?
- Genetics
- Evolution
- evolutionary personality psychology
- behavioural genetics
- Environment
What are the methods and assumptions involved in measuring traits?
- Assumptions
- personality space is made-up of dimensions
- dimensions are independent (orthogonal)
- dimensions are finite
- Statistics
- factor analysis
- reliability and validity assessment
- Tests
- Psychometric questionaires
- Life history /peer review
- physical (EEG, heart-rate, etc)
What was Allport’s definition of personality?
- Personality is a dynamic system of traits that determine characteristic behaviour and thoughts (unique adjustments)
- Personality is greater than the sum of its traits
- organised whole
- self-regulating
- continually evolving
- Personality is real not a construction or abstraction
What was the focus of Allports Humanistic trait theory?
- Emphasis on the uniqueness of the person and individuality
- idiographic approach
- attempts to establish unique combination of traits that can best describe individual
What was Allport’s definition and classification of traits?
- Traits are neuro-psychic structures disposing to certain action
- rooted in nervous system
- Unify stimulus and response: traits render diverse stimuli functionally equivalent on the basis of personality (consistency across scenarios)
- Three types of traits:
- Cardinal: pervasive and dominant, not all individuals posses
- Central: set of traits that can best describe individual
- Secondary: traits that are of lesser importance to individual’s personality
What is Allports concept of the self?
- Personal experience and purpose are unifying aspects of personality
- Humans are rational, creative and self-reliant
- Proprium: The Allportian self (ego)
- is necessary, warm, central,
- Has eight stages of development
What is Allports concept of motives?
- Adult motives are not necessarily the result of fixations, infantile motivations or unconscious needs
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Functional autonomy (of motives)
- permits a relative divorce from the past - emphasis on present state
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Perseverative functional autonomy:
- depends on feedback mechanisms or biochemical processes i.e. smoking
-
Propriate functional autonomy
- motives that develop as direct expression of wants/desires
What are the positives and negatives of Allports Humanistic Trait theory?
- Negatives
- largely neglects affect of environment
- no standardised measurement to assess personality
- largely ignores psychopathology
- initially reduced the importance of common traits
- impractical number of traits (4508)
- Positives
- founder of field of personality (separated from psychopathology )
- proposed traits approach
- proposed distinction between idiographic and nomothetic approaches
- humans are active agents
- opposing Freudian determinism
- behavioural reductionism
- Inspired humanistic/existential approach to personality
- Pioneered psychology of religion
How did Cattell define personality and traits?
- Personality
- The characteristics of an individual that allow us to predict behaviour in given situation
- Traits
- Stable, long-lasting building blocks of personality that have predictive value
- Combined actions of traits result in individual differences
- Both environment and genetics important in development
- Constitutional Traits genetically determined
- Environmental-Mold Traits environmentally determined
In Cattells lexical approach, what is the difference between ability traits, temperament traits and dynamic traits?
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Ability traits‘What we do’
- how we do in certain situations how well achieve goals e.g. intelligence
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Temperament traits‘How we do it’
- Styles adopted when pursuing goals
- Highly heritable
-
Dynamic traits‘Why we do it’
- e.g. ambitious, competitive
- Three types
- Attitudes: constructs that express particular interests
- Sentiments: deeper aggregate of attitudes e.g. values, religiosity
- Ergs: innate drives
- Dynamic Lattice
- Organised complexity of dynamic traits ‘subsidiation’
In Cattell’s lexical approach what is the difference between surface traits and source traits?
- Surface traits
- Directly Observable
- Cluster together and have high intercorrelation
- First order traits (personality is hierarchical)
- Source traits
- Latent Major dimensions of personality
- Second order traits
- Consist of clusters of first order traits
What is Cattell’s Specification Equation?
Personality is the sum of weighted traits
What are the six developmental stages in Cattell’s Lexical theory?
- 0-6: influenced by parents and siblings
- 6-14: independence from parents identification with peers
- 14-23: emotional disorders delinquency conflict of drives for sex, independence and self-assertion
- 23-50: productive and satisfying time
- 50-65: personality developments in response to physical changes
- 65-death adjustment to losses
What is the Lexical Hypothesis?
- If individual differences are important, they should be encoded in language through trait descripters (Galton)
- Assumes:
- frequency of word use => importance of trait
- number of synonyms => importance of difference
- cross-culture presence => importance/universality of traits
How have the established traits developed in the lexical approach?
What are the L, Q and T sources of data Cattell used to devise his 16 PFs?
- L-data (Life record data)
- typically peer ratings
- Q-data (questionnaire data)
- self-report
- T-data (test data)
- objective tests in standardised conditions
What are the positives and negatives of Cattell’s lexical trait theory?
- Positives
- first viable psychometric assessment of personality
- major contribution to mathematical psychology
- proposed state-trait dichotomy
- data gave rise to 5-factor model of personality
- Negatives
- inability to replicate the structure of 16PF
- absolute reliance on factor analysis and statistics
- controversial comments
- beyondism : religion based on evolutionary theory the fittest should inherit the earth
In what ways did 5 recur in personality research?
- 5 factor models recurred across personality research
- Fiske(1949), Norman (63’), Cattell (57’) etc.
- Goldberg; English language ‘trait descriptors’
- Power (surgency)
- Love (agreeableness)
- Work (conscientiousness)
- Affect (emotional stability)
- Intellect
What was Goldbergs assessment of the 5 personality dimensions?
- The Abridged Big Five-Dimensional Circumplex
- A circular model of personality
- Each pair of big 5 factors compromises own circle
- When factor loaded, most items have two factor loadings (rather than one)
- When mapped onto 2D planes = polygon
*
- When mapped onto 2D planes = polygon
How was the OCEAN model developed and how is it structured?
- Costa and McCrae
- Instead of factor analysing the 16PF they cluster analysed it
- Originally found only 3 dimensions: NEO Index
- Openness, Extraversion, Neuroticism
- Later added in Agreeableness and Conscientiousness
- Structure of OCEAN
- Hierachical factoral arrangement
- Personality dimensions are orthogonal
- Personality dimensions each consist of 6 facets (traits)
- Probably the most validated personality arrangment in academia
- The NEO-PI-R (revised index) is the most common psychological profiling tool
What is factor one in the OCEAN model and its 6 facets?
- Factor 1 is Extroversion: relates to degree of having social impact
- Six facets:
- Gregarious
- Warmth
- Assertiveness
- Activity
- Excitement seeking
- Positive emotion
- Behavioural corelates
- Typically has prominence in social organisations
- 0.36 heritability
What is factor 2 in the OCEAN model?
- Factor 2 is Neuroticism/emotionality = relates to anxiety and distress, emotional control/stability
- Six facets:
- Anxiety
- Anger/Hostility
- Depression
- Self-consciousness
- Impulsiveness
- Vulnerability (stress)
- Behavioural corelated:
- typically poor marriage/academic performance
- 0.31 heritability
What is factor 3 in the OCEAN model?
- Factor 3 is Agreeableness = relates to maintaining positive relations with others
- Six facets:
- Trust
- Straightforwardness
- Altruism
- Compliance
- Modesty
- Tender-mindedness
- Behavioural corelates: typically have good conflict resolution strategies and social support
- 0.28 heritability
What is factor 4 in the OCEAN model?
- Factor 4 is conscientiousness = relates to will to achieve
- Six facets:
- Competence
- Order
- Dutifulness
- Achievement Striving
- Self-discipline
- Deliberation
- Behavioural corelates: Typically has higher academic achievement
- 0.28 heritability
What is factor 5 in the OCEAN model?
- Factor 5 is openness = relates to acquisition of (openness to) new experience, curiosity, intelligence
- Least consensus about meaning
- Six facets:
- Fantasy
- Aesthetics
- Attendance to Feelings
- Actions
- Ideas (curiosity)
- Values
- Behavioural corelates: typically show greater engagement with existential challenges and artistic expression
- 0.46 heritability
What aspects of the OCEAN model give it psychometric value?
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Internal consistency
- normative internal consistencies between .70 and .85
-
Cross-culture replicability
- Emic approach: bottom up, people first
- Etic approach: top down, theory first
-
Good temporal stability
- 6 year retest reliabilities: generally between .75 and .85, lower for agreeableness
-
use in psychopathology
- Pattern profiles can be fitted to certain psychopathologies, particularly personality disorders (borderline, avoidant, schizoid)
What are the positives and negatives of the Big Five personality model?
- Positives
- most common used in personality research
- immediate applications in health and occupations
- good psychometric properties
- Negatives
- disagreement on exact nature of factors
- dimensions not completely orthogonal
- no theoretical basis
- is openness a dimension of personality?
- Honesty-humility as a dimension? (the Big 6?)
- circular reasoning
- descriptive taxonomy (classification)
What is Eysencks Big 3 trait typology?
- A psychobiological approach to personality
- After revisiting old theories of the four humours, and looking at psychological and biological data proposed 3 main traits
- Big 3
- Neuroticism
- Extroversion
- Psychoticism
What is Neuroticism in Eysenck’s Big 3 typology?
- Related temperament: emotionality
- Related traits:
- anxiety, depression, feelings of guilt, low self-esteem, tenseness, irrationality, moodiness, worry, fearfulness, obsessive indecision
- Predicts stres related disorders
- High neurotic individuals are consistently more prone to developing stress-related disorders, especially after experiencing traumatic events
What is Extroversion in Eysenck’s big 3 typology?
- Related temperament: inhibition
- Related traits:
- sociability, liveliness, activity, impulsiveness, assertiveness
- High scores predict
- Extraverts are characterised by leadership, initiative, and readiness to assume responsibility
- Are also predisposed to accidents and injuries
- Low Scores predict
- Introverts tend to be persistent, co-operative and careful
What is Psychoticism in Eysencks big 3 typology?
- Tough- vs. tender-mindedness
- A compound dimension of (primarily) psychopathy and psychoticism (proper)
- Applies to all people but not commonly very pronounced
- Related traits:
- aggressiveness, impulsiveness, coldness, egocentrism, impersonality, antisocial behaviour, creativeness, stubbornness
- Predicts
- Highly psychotic people tend to be solitary, are often troublesome and outcasts, sexually perverse, lacking in feeling and empathy,
- HIgh psychoticism also predicts geniuses
- A predisposition to a psychotic and antisocial disorders
In Eysenck’s Arousal Theory, what is the Cortico-Reticular Loop?
- The neural pathway related to extraversion
- Supports information processing
- regulates information/stimulus, maintains alertness, concentration
- Activity is associated with increased cortical arousal
- autonomic nervous system involved
- Over-arousal linked to Introverts:
- Rumination/high stimulation from small environmental factors
- Introverts display lower excitement
- Introverts display low-inhibitory nature (can’t turn off the overthinking)
- Linked to memory
- Introverts LTM
- Extroverts STM
In Eysencks Arousal theory what is the Visero-Cortical Loop?
- The neural pathway related to neuroticism
- Controls subjective and emotional responses
- more excitable in neurotics
- Sympathetic hyperactivity
- positive feedback of nervous activity actives sympathetic response
- increases future susceptibility
- therefore neurotics respond more to own neurotic disposition rather than stimulus
What explains Psychoticism in Eysencks Arousal theory?
- Psychoticism has particularly high heritability rates
- There are several biological markers
- serotonin
- dopamine
- platelet monoamine oxidase (MAOs)
- Weakened excitatory and inhibitory regulation in the nervous system
In Gray’s Reinforcement Sensistivity theory, what is the Behaviour Inhibition System (BIS)?
- Behaviour Inhibition System (BIS) interrupts on-going behaviour to prepare the individual to deal with potentially threatening stimuli
- Inhibits other responses, orients attention to potential threat and raises arousal
- Avoids punishment
- It is activated more in anxious people
- Trait anxiety (High N, low E & P)
- Recently a new subsystem has been proposed, the Fight-Flight-Freeze (FFFS), responsible for fear-regulation
In Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity theory, what is the Behavioural Approach system (BAS)?
- The behavioural approach system is the reward seeking system
- involves dopaminergic fibres
- Controls approach to potentially beneficial and appetitive stimuli
- Considered substrate for impulsivity and optimism
- impulsivity = lack of planning
- high N,E and P
- optimism = high self-esteem and life satisfaction
- Low N and P, high E
- impulsivity = lack of planning
- Impulsivity is not necessarily caused by underarousal, but by sensitivity
How does Grays sensitivity theory fit with Eysencks Arousal theory?
What is Zuckerman’s Psychobiological theory?
- Criticised Eysenck and Gray for oversimplification - ignoring other systems(endocrine), unequal weighting of systems and interactions between systems
- Developed a psychobiological hierachy
- Alternative big 5 based on biology
- Extraversion (sociability): associated with sensitivity to reward, similar to Gray
- Neuroticism (anxiety): sensitivity to punishment, emotional and epinephrine arousal
- Psychoticism (impulsive): psychopathy, sensation seeking, act for sake of excitement lack of behavioural restraint
- Agression (hostility): readiness to express verbal agression, temper
- Activity: need for general activity, impatience, seek challenge
What is Zuckermans Psychophysiological hierachy?
- Supertraits - the big 5
- Traits - sociability, general emotions
- Cognitive/behavioural - expectations, desires
- Psychophysiology - adrenal arousal, cortical inhibition
- Neurotransmitters/enzymes/hormones
Name 5 sources of empirical evidence for the psychobiological approach to personality
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ElectroEncephaloGraphy (EEG)
- introverts have higher cortical arousal
- introverts have higher alpha waves
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ElectroDermal Activity (EDA)
- high sensation seekers get more aroused with intense stimulation
- introverts become less aroused with caffeine (threshold?)
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Heart Rate Variability
- in stressful situation introverts have higher heart rates
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Functional Brain Scanning
- association between dopamine production and BAS
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Hormones
- Prenatal testosterone produces higher aggresion levels, effect stronger in boys than girls
What are some potential limitations of psychophysiological research?
- Methodological
- limited understanding of the systems involved, instrumental limitation
- Evoked Potential
- extraverts seek arousal when bored, compounds arousal measures
- Transmarginal Inhibition of CNS
- de-arousal tendency when experiencing intense stimulation low boundaries in introverts
- Plasticity
- neurobiological systems can change often as a result of experience
What are some of the positives and negatives of Psychobiological theories of personality?
- Positives
- first theories to describe biological correlates of personality
- first causal theories
- first theories to link normal and abnormal personality (dimensional approach)
- direct application to mental disorders
- ‘birth’ of modern clinical psychology
- Negatives
- disagreement on exact number of biological systems involved
- assessment of traits becomes impractical
- Eysneck’s psychoticism dimension is not well-defined and unreliable
- biological underpinning needs further explanation
- only explain 40% of variance