Personality Traits

Question 1

What are some historical influences on the trait approach?

Answer 1

• Hippocrates (the four humours)
• Immanuel Kant (dimensions)
• Wilhelm Wundt (temperament and dimensions)
• Francis Galton
  
  • founder of differential psychology,
  • personality should interact with biology in an observable manner
• William Sheldon
  
  • Somatomorphy
  • Devised tests of personality through body type

Question 2

What are the main premises of the trait approach to personality?

Answer 2

• Personality exists
• Personality is a probabilistic system
• Personality has both quantity and quality properties
• Need for scientific taxonomy (classification)

Question 3

What are traits?

Answer 3

• Traits are general dispositions that uniquely influence psychology
  
  • Traits are not directly observable but inferred from indicators
  • Traits do not determine behaviour but bias people towards certain behaviours
• Every human possesses all traits to a certain extent
• Development is generally assumed to end in early adult-hood
  
  • relatively stable over time and situation
• Hierarchical arranged elements
  
  • dimensionally arranged

Question 4

What is the difference between a trait and a state?

Answer 4

• State = intensity of traits at a given point
  
  • Mood is a subclass of state
• External event + trait = state

Question 5

What is temperament?

Answer 5

• Characteristic reaction patterns
  
  • biologically-based elements of personality
  • present in infancy and childhood
  • inherited subclass of personality dimensions
• fuzzy distinction with personality traits

Question 6

What are the forces that shape personality/traits?

Answer 6

• Genetics
• Evolution
  
  • evolutionary personality psychology
  • behavioural genetics
• Environment

Question 7

What are the methods and assumptions involved in measuring traits?

Answer 7

• Assumptions
  
  • personality space is made-up of dimensions
  • dimensions are independent (orthogonal)
  • dimensions are finite
• Statistics
  
  • factor analysis
  • reliability and validity assessment
• Tests
  
  • Psychometric questionaires
  • Life history /peer review
  • physical (EEG, heart-rate, etc)

Question 8

What was Allport’s definition of personality?

Answer 8

• Personality is a dynamic system of traits that determine characteristic behaviour and thoughts (unique adjustments)
• Personality is greater than the sum of its traits
  
  • organised whole
  • self-regulating
  • continually evolving
• Personality is real not a construction or abstraction

Question 9

What was the focus of Allports Humanistic trait theory?

Answer 9

• Emphasis on the uniqueness of the person and individuality
• idiographic approach
  
  • attempts to establish unique combination of traits that can best describe individual

Question 10

What was Allport’s definition and classification of traits?

Answer 10

• Traits are neuro-psychic structures disposing to certain action
  
  • rooted in nervous system
  • Unify stimulus and response: traits render diverse stimuli functionally equivalent on the basis of personality (consistency across scenarios)
• Three types of traits:
  
  1. Cardinal: pervasive and dominant, not all individuals posses
  2. Central: set of traits that can best describe individual
  3. Secondary: traits that are of lesser importance to individual’s personality

Question 11

What is Allports concept of the self?

Answer 11

• Personal experience and purpose are unifying aspects of personality
• Humans are rational, creative and self-reliant
• Proprium: The Allportian self (ego)
  
  • is necessary, warm, central,
  • Has eight stages of development

Question 12

What is Allports concept of motives?

Answer 12

• Adult motives are not necessarily the result of fixations, infantile motivations or unconscious needs
• Functional autonomy (of motives)
  
  • permits a relative divorce from the past - emphasis on present state
  • Perseverative functional autonomy:
    
    • depends on feedback mechanisms or biochemical processes i.e. smoking
  • Propriate functional autonomy
    
    • motives that develop as direct expression of wants/desires

Question 13

What are the positives and negatives of Allports Humanistic Trait theory?

Answer 13

• Negatives
  
  • largely neglects affect of environment
  • no standardised measurement to assess personality
  • largely ignores psychopathology
  • initially reduced the importance of common traits
  • impractical number of traits (4508)
• Positives
  
  • founder of field of personality (separated from psychopathology )
  • proposed traits approach
  • proposed distinction between idiographic and nomothetic approaches
  • humans are active agents
    
    • opposing Freudian determinism
    • behavioural reductionism
  • Inspired humanistic/existential approach to personality
  • Pioneered psychology of religion

Question 14

How did Cattell define personality and traits?

Answer 14

• Personality
  
  • The characteristics of an individual that allow us to predict behaviour in given situation
• Traits
  
  • Stable, long-lasting building blocks of personality that have predictive value
  • Combined actions of traits result in individual differences
  • Both environment and genetics important in development
    
    • Constitutional Traits genetically determined
    • Environmental-Mold Traits environmentally determined

Question 15

In Cattells lexical approach, what is the difference between ability traits, temperament traits and dynamic traits?

Answer 15

• Ability traits‘What we do’
  
  • how we do in certain situations how well achieve goals e.g. intelligence
• Temperament traits‘How we do it’
  
  • Styles adopted when pursuing goals
  • Highly heritable
• Dynamic traits‘Why we do it’
  
  • e.g. ambitious, competitive
  • Three types
    
    1. Attitudes: constructs that express particular interests
    2. Sentiments: deeper aggregate of attitudes e.g. values, religiosity
    3. Ergs: innate drives
  • Dynamic Lattice
    
    • Organised complexity of dynamic traits ‘subsidiation’

Question 16

In Cattell’s lexical approach what is the difference between surface traits and source traits?

Answer 16

• Surface traits
  
  • Directly Observable
  • Cluster together and have high intercorrelation
  • First order traits (personality is hierarchical)
• Source traits
  
  • Latent Major dimensions of personality
  • Second order traits
  • Consist of clusters of first order traits

Question 17

What is Cattell’s Specification Equation?

Answer 17

Personality is the sum of weighted traits

Question 18

What are the six developmental stages in Cattell’s Lexical theory?

Answer 18

• 0-6: influenced by parents and siblings
• 6-14: independence from parents identification with peers
• 14-23: emotional disorders delinquency conflict of drives for sex, independence and self-assertion
• 23-50: productive and satisfying time
• 50-65: personality developments in response to physical changes
• 65-death adjustment to losses

Question 19

What is the Lexical Hypothesis?

Answer 19

• If individual differences are important, they should be encoded in language through trait descripters (Galton)
• Assumes:
  
  • frequency of word use => importance of trait
  • number of synonyms => importance of difference
  • cross-culture presence => importance/universality of traits

Question 20

How have the established traits developed in the lexical approach?

Answer 20

Question 21

What are the L, Q and T sources of data Cattell used to devise his 16 PFs?

Answer 21

• L-data (Life record data)
  
  • typically peer ratings
• Q-data (questionnaire data)
  
  • self-report
• T-data (test data)
  
  • objective tests in standardised conditions

Question 22

What are the positives and negatives of Cattell’s lexical trait theory?

Answer 22

• Positives
  
  • first viable psychometric assessment of personality
  • major contribution to mathematical psychology
  • proposed state-trait dichotomy
  • data gave rise to 5-factor model of personality
• Negatives
  
  • inability to replicate the structure of 16PF
  • absolute reliance on factor analysis and statistics
  • controversial comments
  • beyondism : religion based on evolutionary theory the fittest should inherit the earth

Question 23

In what ways did 5 recur in personality research?

Answer 23

• 5 factor models recurred across personality research
  
  • Fiske(1949), Norman (63’), Cattell (57’) etc.
• Goldberg; English language ‘trait descriptors’
  
  • 1. Power (surgency)
  • 2. Love (agreeableness)
  • 3. Work (conscientiousness)
  • 4. Affect (emotional stability)
  • 5. Intellect

Question 24

What was Goldbergs assessment of the 5 personality dimensions?

Answer 24

• The Abridged Big Five-Dimensional Circumplex
  
  • A circular model of personality
  • Each pair of big 5 factors compromises own circle
  • When factor loaded, most items have two factor loadings (rather than one)
    
    • When mapped onto 2D planes = polygon
      *

Question 25

How was the OCEAN model developed and how is it structured?

Answer 25

• Costa and McCrae
  
  • Instead of factor analysing the 16PF they cluster analysed it
  • Originally found only 3 dimensions: NEO Index
    
    • Openness, Extraversion, Neuroticism
    • Later added in Agreeableness and Conscientiousness
• Structure of OCEAN
  
  • Hierachical factoral arrangement
  • Personality dimensions are orthogonal
  • Personality dimensions each consist of 6 facets (traits)
• Probably the most validated personality arrangment in academia
• The NEO-PI-R (revised index) is the most common psychological profiling tool

Question 26

What is factor one in the OCEAN model and its 6 facets?

Answer 26

• Factor 1 is Extroversion: relates to degree of having social impact
• Six facets:
  
  • 1. Gregarious
  • 2. Warmth
  • 3. Assertiveness
  • 4. Activity
  • 5. Excitement seeking
  • 6. Positive emotion
• Behavioural corelates
  
  • Typically has prominence in social organisations
• 0.36 heritability

Question 27

What is factor 2 in the OCEAN model?

Answer 27

• Factor 2 is Neuroticism/emotionality = relates to anxiety and distress, emotional control/stability
• Six facets:
  
  • 1. Anxiety
  • 2. Anger/Hostility
  • 3. Depression
  • 4. Self-consciousness
  • 5. Impulsiveness
  • 6. Vulnerability (stress)
• Behavioural corelated:
  
  • typically poor marriage/academic performance
• 0.31 heritability

Question 28

What is factor 3 in the OCEAN model?

Answer 28

• Factor 3 is Agreeableness = relates to maintaining positive relations with others
• Six facets:
  
  • 1. Trust
  • 2. Straightforwardness
  • 3. Altruism
  • 4. Compliance
  • 5. Modesty
  • 6. Tender-mindedness
• Behavioural corelates: typically have good conflict resolution strategies and social support
• 0.28 heritability

Question 29

What is factor 4 in the OCEAN model?

Answer 29

• Factor 4 is conscientiousness = relates to will to achieve
• Six facets:
  
  • 1. Competence
  • 2. Order
  • 3. Dutifulness
  • 4. Achievement Striving
  • 5. Self-discipline
  • 6. Deliberation
• Behavioural corelates: Typically has higher academic achievement
• 0.28 heritability

Question 30

What is factor 5 in the OCEAN model?

Answer 30

• Factor 5 is openness = relates to acquisition of (openness to) new experience, curiosity, intelligence
  
  • Least consensus about meaning
• Six facets:
  
  • 1. Fantasy
  • 2. Aesthetics
  • 3. Attendance to Feelings
  • 4. Actions
  • 5. Ideas (curiosity)
  • 6. Values
• Behavioural corelates: typically show greater engagement with existential challenges and artistic expression
• 0.46 heritability

Question 31

What aspects of the OCEAN model give it psychometric value?

Answer 31

• Internal consistency
  
  • normative internal consistencies between .70 and .85
• Cross-culture replicability
  
  • Emic approach: bottom up, people first
  • Etic approach: top down, theory first
• Good temporal stability
  
  • 6 year retest reliabilities: generally between .75 and .85, lower for agreeableness
• use in psychopathology
  
  • Pattern profiles can be fitted to certain psychopathologies, particularly personality disorders (borderline, avoidant, schizoid)

Question 32

What are the positives and negatives of the Big Five personality model?

Answer 32

• Positives
  
  • most common used in personality research
  • immediate applications in health and occupations
  • good psychometric properties
• Negatives
  
  • disagreement on exact nature of factors
  • dimensions not completely orthogonal
  • no theoretical basis
  • is openness a dimension of personality?
  • Honesty-humility as a dimension? (the Big 6?)
  • circular reasoning
  • descriptive taxonomy (classification)

Question 33

What is Eysencks Big 3 trait typology?

Answer 33

• A psychobiological approach to personality
• After revisiting old theories of the four humours, and looking at psychological and biological data proposed 3 main traits
• Big 3
  
  • Neuroticism
  • Extroversion
  • Psychoticism

Question 34

What is Neuroticism in Eysenck’s Big 3 typology?

Answer 34

• Related temperament: emotionality
• Related traits:
  
  • anxiety, depression, feelings of guilt, low self-esteem, tenseness, irrationality, moodiness, worry, fearfulness, obsessive indecision
• Predicts stres related disorders
  
  • High neurotic individuals are consistently more prone to developing stress-related disorders, especially after experiencing traumatic events

Question 35

What is Extroversion in Eysenck’s big 3 typology?

Answer 35

• Related temperament: inhibition
• Related traits:
  
  • sociability, liveliness, activity, impulsiveness, assertiveness
• High scores predict
  
  • Extraverts are characterised by leadership, initiative, and readiness to assume responsibility
  • Are also predisposed to accidents and injuries
• Low Scores predict
  
  • Introverts tend to be persistent, co-operative and careful

Question 36

What is Psychoticism in Eysencks big 3 typology?

Answer 36

• Tough- vs. tender-mindedness
• A compound dimension of (primarily) psychopathy and psychoticism (proper)
• Applies to all people but not commonly very pronounced
• Related traits:
  
  • aggressiveness, impulsiveness, coldness, egocentrism, impersonality, antisocial behaviour, creativeness, stubbornness
• Predicts
  
  • Highly psychotic people tend to be solitary, are often troublesome and outcasts, sexually perverse, lacking in feeling and empathy,
  • HIgh psychoticism also predicts geniuses
  • A predisposition to a psychotic and antisocial disorders

Question 37

In Eysenck’s Arousal Theory, what is the Cortico-Reticular Loop?

Answer 37

• The neural pathway related to extraversion
• Supports information processing
  
  • regulates information/stimulus, maintains alertness, concentration
• Activity is associated with increased cortical arousal
  
  • autonomic nervous system involved
• Over-arousal linked to Introverts:
  
  • Rumination/high stimulation from small environmental factors
  • Introverts display lower excitement
  • Introverts display low-inhibitory nature (can’t turn off the overthinking)
• Linked to memory
  
  • Introverts LTM
  • Extroverts STM

Question 38

In Eysencks Arousal theory what is the Visero-Cortical Loop?

Answer 38

• The neural pathway related to neuroticism
• Controls subjective and emotional responses
  
  • more excitable in neurotics
• Sympathetic hyperactivity
  
  • positive feedback of nervous activity actives sympathetic response
  • increases future susceptibility
  • therefore neurotics respond more to own neurotic disposition rather than stimulus

Question 39

What explains Psychoticism in Eysencks Arousal theory?

Answer 39

• Psychoticism has particularly high heritability rates
• There are several biological markers
  
  • serotonin
  • dopamine
  • platelet monoamine oxidase (MAOs)
• Weakened excitatory and inhibitory regulation in the nervous system

Question 40

In Gray’s Reinforcement Sensistivity theory, what is the Behaviour Inhibition System (BIS)?

Answer 40

• Behaviour Inhibition System (BIS) interrupts on-going behaviour to prepare the individual to deal with potentially threatening stimuli
  
  • Inhibits other responses, orients attention to potential threat and raises arousal
  • Avoids punishment
• It is activated more in anxious people
  
  • Trait anxiety (High N, low E & P)
• Recently a new subsystem has been proposed, the Fight-Flight-Freeze (FFFS), responsible for fear-regulation

Question 41

In Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity theory, what is the Behavioural Approach system (BAS)?

Answer 41

• The behavioural approach system is the reward seeking system
  
  • involves dopaminergic fibres
  • Controls approach to potentially beneficial and appetitive stimuli
• Considered substrate for impulsivity and optimism
  
  • impulsivity = lack of planning
    
    • high N,E and P
  • optimism = high self-esteem and life satisfaction
    
    • Low N and P, high E
• Impulsivity is not necessarily caused by underarousal, but by sensitivity

Question 42

How does Grays sensitivity theory fit with Eysencks Arousal theory?

Answer 42

Question 43

What is Zuckerman’s Psychobiological theory?

Answer 43

• Criticised Eysenck and Gray for oversimplification - ignoring other systems(endocrine), unequal weighting of systems and interactions between systems
• Developed a psychobiological hierachy
• Alternative big 5 based on biology
  
  1. Extraversion (sociability): associated with sensitivity to reward, similar to Gray
  2. Neuroticism (anxiety): sensitivity to punishment, emotional and epinephrine arousal
  3. Psychoticism (impulsive): psychopathy, sensation seeking, act for sake of excitement lack of behavioural restraint
  4. Agression (hostility): readiness to express verbal agression, temper
  5. Activity: need for general activity, impatience, seek challenge

Question 44

What is Zuckermans Psychophysiological hierachy?

Answer 44

1. Supertraits - the big 5
2. Traits - sociability, general emotions
3. Cognitive/behavioural - expectations, desires
4. Psychophysiology - adrenal arousal, cortical inhibition
5. Neurotransmitters/enzymes/hormones

Question 45

Name 5 sources of empirical evidence for the psychobiological approach to personality

Answer 45

1. ElectroEncephaloGraphy (EEG)
   
   • introverts have higher cortical arousal
   • introverts have higher alpha waves
2. ElectroDermal Activity (EDA)
   
   • high sensation seekers get more aroused with intense stimulation
   • introverts become less aroused with caffeine (threshold?)
3. Heart Rate Variability
   
   • in stressful situation introverts have higher heart rates
4. Functional Brain Scanning
   
   • association between dopamine production and BAS
5. Hormones
   
   • Prenatal testosterone produces higher aggresion levels, effect stronger in boys than girls

Question 46

What are some potential limitations of psychophysiological research?

Answer 46

• Methodological
  
  • limited understanding of the systems involved, instrumental limitation
• Evoked Potential
  
  • extraverts seek arousal when bored, compounds arousal measures
• Transmarginal Inhibition of CNS
  
  • de-arousal tendency when experiencing intense stimulation low boundaries in introverts
• Plasticity
  
  • neurobiological systems can change often as a result of experience

Question 47

What are some of the positives and negatives of Psychobiological theories of personality?

Answer 47

• Positives
  
  • first theories to describe biological correlates of personality
  • first causal theories
  • first theories to link normal and abnormal personality (dimensional approach)
  • direct application to mental disorders
  • ‘birth’ of modern clinical psychology
• Negatives
  
  • disagreement on exact number of biological systems involved
  • assessment of traits becomes impractical
  • Eysneck’s psychoticism dimension is not well-defined and unreliable
  • biological underpinning needs further explanation
  • only explain 40% of variance