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Second Year Second Semester > Personality Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Personality Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Personality

A

No one single definition -
* o A set of psychological traits and mechanisms
o Existing within an individual
o Organised and enduring
o Influencing interactions with (and adaptions to) the intrapsychic (in the psyche), physical (environment), and social environments (environment of people)

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2
Q

Trait

A

Something long-lasting

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3
Q

State

A

A temporary type of presentation of behaviour

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4
Q

Psychological traits

A

Characteristics that describe ways in which people are similar AND different from each other; describe the average tendencies of a person
• Help to describe people and the dimensions of difference between people
• Help to explain behaviour
• Help to predict behaviour

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5
Q

Psychological Mechanisms

A

Inputs: Traits may make people more sensitive to certain kinds of information from the environment
Decision rules: Traits may make people more likely to think about specific options
Outputs: Traits may guide people’s behaviour toward certain categories of action

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6
Q

Organized

A

Organized mechanisms and traits are linked in a coherent fashion; contain decision rules that govern which needs are activated

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7
Q

Enduring

A

Stable over time; state vs trait

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8
Q

Perceptions

A

How we see or interpret an environment

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9
Q

Selections

A

Way in which we choose situations

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10
Q

Evocations

A

Reactions we produce in others; often unintentional (evoking/bringing out something in another person)

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11
Q

Manipulations

A

Intentional attempts to influence others

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12
Q

Physical environment

A

Threats to survival

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13
Q

Social environment

A

Competition for jobs, mates, friends

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14
Q

Intrapsychic environment

A

Within the mind; includes memories, dreams, desires, fantasies; we evaluate our self-esteem based on the degree to which we are attaining our goals

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15
Q

Human Nature

A

Like all others

Ways in which we are all alike; universals

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16
Q

Individual and group differences

A

Like some others

Ways in which we are like some people but unlike others; particulars

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17
Q

Individual uniqueness

A

Like no others

Ways in which we are unlike any other person; uniqueness

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18
Q

Nomothetic Approach

A

(To individual uniqueness)
Statistical comparisons of individuals or groups; identify universal human characteristics and dimensions of individual or group differences

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19
Q

Idiographic Approach

A

Focus on a single subject; observe the general principles that manifest in a single life over time e.g, case studies (“Gold standard”, although not quite feasible)

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20
Q

Grand theories

A

Human nature level of analysis; focus on universal accounts (Universal psychic structure of id, ego, superego)

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21
Q

Contemporary theories

A

Focus on the ways individuals and groups differ (biological sex differences and/or cultural differences in terms of a trait)

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22
Q

Dispositional Domain

A

Identify and measure the most important ways individuals differ from one another; origins of differences and how they develop and are maintained

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23
Q

Biological Domain

A

Role of genetics (e.g., using twin studies), psychophysiology (i.e., nervous system functioning), and evolution (i.e., survival and reproduction)

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24
Q

Intrapsychic Domain

A

Mental mechanisms of personality; often operate outside conscious awareness; psychoanalytic theory; role of motives

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25
Q

Cognitive-experiential Domain

A

Subjective experiences; role of self, self-esteem, and self-concept; goal-striving behaviours; role of emotions and emotional expression

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26
Q

Social and Cultural Domain

A

Influence of social and cultural environment in what personality traits are displayed

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27
Q

Adjustment Domain

A

Personality plays a role in how we cope, adapt, and adjust to the events of our daily lives; impact of personality on mental and physical health

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28
Q

A Good Theory

A

o Provides a guide for researches
o Organizes known findings
o Makes predictions

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29
Q

What are the 5 Scientific Standards for Evaluating Personality Theories?

A
  • Comprehensiveness
  • Heuristic value
  • Testability
  • Parsimony
  • Compatibility and integration across domains and levels
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30
Q

Comprehensiveness

A

Explains most or all known facts

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31
Q

Heuristic Value

A

Guides researchers to important new discoveries

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32
Q

Testability

A

Makes precise predictions that can be empirically tested

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33
Q

Parsimony

A

Contains few premises or assumptions

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34
Q

Compatibility and Integration across Domains and Levels

A

Consistent with what is known in other domains; can be coordinated with other branches of scientific knowledge

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35
Q

Self-report Data (S-Data)

A

Information a person reveals about themselves

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36
Q

Observer-report Data (O-Data)

A

information about a person’s personality from other people; can use people who know or do not know (professional personality assessors) the participant

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37
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

Witness and record events that occur normally in a participant’s life; but there is issue of a lack of researcher control

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38
Q

Artificial observation

A

Observe how a participant behaves in a constructed setting but the issue of a lack of realism for the participant

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39
Q

Test data (T-Data)

A

Results of standardized testing; elicit behaviour in a controlled context to test specific hypotheses

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40
Q

Life-outcome Data (L-Data)

A

Information from events, activities, and outcomes in a person’s life that are available to public scrutiny

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41
Q

Reliability

A

Degree to which an obtained measure represents the true level of the trait being measured (Measure weight with a scale)

42
Q

Repeated Measurement

A

Repeat a measurement over time; if the two tests are highly correlated, measure has high test-retest reliability

43
Q

Internal Consistency Reliability

A

Examine the relationship among items on a test; need to ensure items all correlate well with each other

44
Q

Inter-rater reliability

A

Examine measurements from multiple observers; need observers to agree with one another

45
Q

Response sets

A

Tendency of people to respond to questions on a basis that is unrelated to the question content; aka noncontent responding

46
Q

Face validity

A

Whether the test [on the surface] appears to measure what it is supposed to measure

47
Q

Predictive validity

A

Whether the test predicts criteria external to the test (aka criterion validity)

48
Q

Convergent validity

A

Whether a test correlates with other measures that it should correlate with

49
Q

Discriminant validity

A

Refers to what a measure should NOT correlate with; evaluated simultaneously with convergent validity

50
Q

Construct validity

A

Broadest type; includes face, predictive, convergent and discriminant validity; can the measure claim to be a valid way of assessing the construct?

51
Q

Generalizability

A

Degree to which the measure retains its validity across various contexts

52
Q

Experimental methods

A

Used to determine causality; how one variable influences another variable

53
Q

Variable

A

Quality that differs for different people; e.g., height, weight, aggressiveness

54
Q

Random Assignment

A

If there are groups, randomly assign participants to either experimental or control groups; equal chance of being assigned to a condition

55
Q

Counterbalancing

A

If participants are exposed to both groups, the order is balanced so half the participants get Group 1 first then Group 2, and other half get Group 2 first then Group 1

56
Q

Mean

A

Average

57
Q

Standard Deviation

A

Measure of variability within each condition

58
Q

T-test

A

Statistical formula; calculates the difference between two means

59
Q

p-value

A

Difference between means that is significant at .05 implies that the finding would be likely to occur by change alone only 5 times out of 100 (statistically significant)

60
Q

Correlational studies

A

Determining if there is a relationship between variables w/o manipulation

61
Q

Correlational coefficient

A

Procedure for gauging relationships between variables
o Range from +1.00 through 0.00 to -1.00
o Can be positively related, unrelated, or negatively related

62
Q

Disposition

A

Inherent tendency to behave in a specific way; used interchangeably with trait

63
Q

Act nomination

A

Procedure that identifies which acts belong in which trait categories; e.g., what acts fit the category of impulsivity?

64
Q

Prototypicality Judgement

A

Which acts are central to each trait category? E.g, what acts are representative of impulsivity?

65
Q

Recording of act performance

A

Securing information on the actual performance of individuals; often use self-reports

66
Q

Lexical Approach

A

Language/words used to describe differences among people

67
Q

Statistical Approach

A

Factor analysis/stats to identify major personality traits

68
Q

Theoretical Approach

A

Reliance on theories to identify important traits

69
Q

Lexical Hypothesis

A

All important individual differences have been encoded within the natural language; allow us to communicate w/ others

70
Q

Statistical Approach

A

Starts w. a pool of personality items and then identifies groups or clusters of items; goal is to identify the major dimensions

71
Q

Factor Analysis

A

Identifies groups of items that covary (go together) but do not covary w/ other groups of items

72
Q

Factor Loadings

A

Indexes of how much of the variation in an item is explained by the factor; degree to which the item correlates or loads on an underlying factor

73
Q

Theoretical approach

A

Starts w/ a theory that determines which variables are important to measure

74
Q

Taxonomies of Personality - Eysenck

A
  • Psychoticism (P)
  • Extraversion-introversion (E)
  • Neuroticism-emotional stability (N)
75
Q

Psychoticism

A

Impulsivity; lack of empathy; antisocial tendencies (not psychopathy, but could be precursor

76
Q

Extraversion

A

High activity level; require having people around

77
Q

Introversion

A

Prefer quieter activities, prefer routine, predictable lifestyles

78
Q

Neuroticism

A

Overactivity on negative emotions; greater emotional arousal to stress; trouble returning to baseline emotional self after stressful event

79
Q

Hierarchical Model

A

Super-traits at the top; narrower traits at second level; habitual acts at third level; specific acts at fourth level
o When specific acts are repeated frequently become habitual acts
o Clusters of habitual acts become narrow traits
o Clusters of narrow traits become super-traits

80
Q

Heritability

A

Genetic evidence; PEN have moderate heritability

81
Q

Identifiable Physiological Substrate

A

Can identify properties in the brain/CNS that are part of a causal chain that produces personality traits
o Psychoticism: levels of testosterone (+) and MAO (-) (neurotransmitter inhibitor)
o Extraversion: linked to CNS arousal/reactivity
o Neuroticism: linked to lability (changeability) of the ANS

82
Q

Cattell’s Taxonomy

A

16 Personality System
Named factors A, B, etc.
Believed true factors of personality should be found across different data sources (S- data, T-data)
Strong empirical strategy for identifying basic personality dimensions
Criticized for not being concise enough

83
Q

Leary and Wiggins Taxonomy

A

Circumplex (circle) taxonomies of personality
- Expanded on Lexical assumption – trait terms specify different kinds of ways in which individuals differ
Strengths:
- Explicit definition of interpersonal behaviour
- Specifies relationships between each trait and every other trait in the model
Limitations:
- Interpersonal map is limited in two dimensions; need a more comprehensive taxonomy

84
Q

Interpersonal traits

A

(Leary&Wiggins)

What people do to/with each other

85
Q

Temperament traits

A

(Leary&Wiggins)

e.g., nervous, gloomy, excitable

86
Q

Character traits

A

(Leary&Wiggins)

e.g., moral, principled, dishonest

87
Q

Material traits

A

(Leary&Wiggins)

e.g., miserly, stingy

88
Q

Attitude traits

A

(Leary&Wiggins)

e.g., clever, logical, perceptive

89
Q

Physical traits

A

(Leary&Wiggins)

e.g., healthy, tough

90
Q

Adjacency

A

How close the traits are to each other, positively correlated

91
Q

Bipolarity

A

Traits on opposite sides of the circle, negatively correlated

92
Q

Orthogonality

A

Traits that are perpendicular to each other are unrelated, zero correlation

93
Q

Five-Factor Model (Big 5)

A

OCEAN
- (I): Extraversion or surgency
- (II): Agreeableness
- (III): Conscientiousness
- (IV): Neuroticism or emotional instability
- (V): Openness-intellect or openness to experience
Formed from lexical and statistical approaches

94
Q

Extraversion (Surgency)

A
  • Key feature of social attention; have a strong impact on their social environment
  • More involved in their work/enjoy their work
  • More cooperative and outgoing
  • Engage in risk-taking behaviour (which can be dangerous)
95
Q

Agreeableness

A
  • Favour using negotiation to resolve conflicts; withdraw from social conflict
  • Prosocial, empathic; value prosocial behaviours in others
  • Disagreeable individuals are aggressive and often engage in social conflict
96
Q

Conscientiousness

A
  • Hardworking (industrious), punctual, and reliable
  • Higher GPA, greater job satisfaction/security BUT risk of poor mental health when unemployed
  • More positive/committed social relationships
  • Don’t procrastinate, perfectionists, and score high on achievement motivation
97
Q

Neuroticism

A
  • Key feature is variability of mood over time
  • High scores report poorer physical health, more physical symptoms, fewer attempts to engage in health-promoting behaviours
  • High scorers struggle with everyday stresses/strains; more susceptible to emotional fatigue and burnout
  • Engage in self-handicapping behaviour
98
Q

Intellect-openness

A
  • High scorers remember their dreams more, have more waking dreams; also have more vivid, prophetic, and/or problem-solving type dreams
  • Linked to experimentation w/ new foods and experiences
  • More creative and more open to receiving information from a variety of senses
99
Q

Comprehensiveness of the Model

A
  • Critics think factors are missing such as: Positive evaluation (e.g., outstanding vs. ordinary), negative evaluation (e.g., awful vs. decent), religiosity and spirituality, attractiveness, sexiness, and faithfulness
  • Approach of looking at personality-descriptive nouns rather than adjectives
  • Importance of facets: e.g., need for achievement (facet of conscientiousness)
100
Q

Dark Triad

A
  • Narcissism: self-admiration
  • Psychopathy: antisocial tendencies (go against social norms [rule-breaking tendencies])
  • Machiavellianism: exploitative and manipulative interpersonal style
101
Q

Meyers-Brigg Type Indicator (MBTI)

A

o Tests eight fundamental preferences (Table 4.1)
o Reduces preferences to four scores: extraverted OR introverted; sensing OR intuitive, thinking OR feeling; judging OR perceiving
o Four scores combine to yield a type; 16 types total
Issues with the MBTI?
o Based on the theory of psychological types which has not been widely endorsed by research; personality is dimensional, not categorical
o A typology system assumes large between-category differences and no within-category differences; e.g., all extraverted types are not the same

Be careful about using for employment purposes!!

Why is it used?

  • Popular
  • Easy to score/administer
  • Makes you think about how to work with others who differ from you

Second Year Second Semester (2 decks)

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