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GR B - MGMT > Personality and Perception > Flashcards

Personality and Perception Flashcards

1
Q

personality

A

Personality is the distinctive and relatively enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that characterize an individual’s unique adaptation to life.

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2
Q

Components of Personality

A
  1. Traits
  2. Temperament
  3. Character
  4. Self-Concept
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3
Q

Traits component of personality

A

Definition: Enduring predispositions that influence our behavior across various situations and over time. These traits are relatively stable but can show some degree of change throughout our lives. Traits are like building blocks that combine to form our unique personality.
Examples: Extraversion (sociable vs. reserved), agreeableness (cooperative vs. competitive), conscientiousness (organized vs. easy-going), neuroticism (prone to worry vs. emotionally stable), openness to experience (imaginative vs. practical).
Key Theories: Trait theories focus heavily on identifying and measuring core personality traits. The most widely accepted model is the Big Five, mentioned above.

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4
Q

Temperament component of personality

A

Definition: Biologically-based tendencies that shape our basic emotional style and reactivity.
Influential Factors: Genetics, neurochemistry, and very early experiences.
Examples: Activity level, mood (generally positive or negative), adaptability, intensity of reactions.
Foundation for Personality: Temperament provides the raw material upon which personality develops and is shaped by social and environmental influences.

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5
Q

Character component of personality

A

Definition: The set of moral and ethical qualities that guide an individual’s actions and choices.
Development: Shaped by personal experiences, cultural values, and education.
Examples: Honesty, integrity, fairness, responsibility, compassion.
Reflection of Values: Character defines what we believe is right and wrong, influencing our decision-making.

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6
Q

Self-concept component of personality

A

Definition: Our overall perception and understanding of ourselves – our beliefs, abilities, roles, and unique qualities.
Development: Evolves through our experiences and interactions with others.
Influence on Behavior: Our self-concept impacts how we interpret situations, our expectations, and the goals we set for ourselves.

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7
Q

Interaction of Components of personality

A

These components don’t exist in isolation; they interact in complex ways to shape our overall personality:

Temperament + Experience = Traits: Our innate temperament interacts with life experiences to shape the development of broader personality traits.
Traits + Character = Behavior Our traits and moral values together influence our actions and decisions.
Self-Concept is shaped by all: Our traits, temperament, character, and our experiences in the world all inform how we view ourselves.

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8
Q

What are the determinants of personality?

A

The factors that interact to shape our unique patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior.
Key categories include biological, environmental, situational, and psychological factors.

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9
Q

Biological/Hereditary Determinants of Personality

A

Genetics: Influence core personality traits (e.g., extraversion).
Temperament: Biologically-based emotional and behavioral tendencies.
Physiology: Brain structure, hormones, etc., can impact aspects of personality.

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10
Q

Environmental Determinants of Personality

A

Family: Parenting, sibling relationships, and family dynamics.
Culture: Norms, values, and expectations about expressing personality.
Socialization: Learning from peers, teachers, and role models.
Life Experiences: Significant events shape beliefs and coping mechanisms.

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11
Q

Situational Determinants of Personality

A

Roles: Different roles we play (e.g., parent, employee) influence behavior.
Social Norms: Our behavior adapts to fit social expectations.
Stressors: Reactions to challenges reveal aspects of personality.

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12
Q

Psychological Determinants of Personality

A

Self-Concept: How we view ourselves impacts our choices and behaviors.
Beliefs & Values: Core beliefs shape our motivations and decisions.
Cognitive Processes: How we perceive and process information affects our reactions

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13
Q

Interaction, Not Isolation
Characteristic of determinants of personality

A

These determinants don’t work in silos. There’s a complex interplay between genetics, environment, personal choices, and situations

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14
Q

Nature vs. Nurture Debate
Characteristic of determinants of personality

A

The relative influence of biological factors versus environmental factors in personality development has been long debated. Modern understanding suggests that both play significant roles.

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15
Q

Change is Possible
Characteristic of determinants of personality

A

While personality tends to have some stability, it’s not fixed. Experiences, intentional effort, and even therapy can lead to changes in personality over time.

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16
Q

What is Freud’s theory of personality called?

A
  1. Psychodynamic Theory
  2. Emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind in shaping personality.
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17
Q

What are the three components of personality according to Freud?

A

ID:
* Primitive, instinctual part of the mind.
* Operates on the pleasure principle - seeks immediate gratification.
* Contains libido (sexual energy) and Thanatos (aggressive drive).

EGO:
* The “reality principle.”
* Mediates between the id’s demands and the constraints of the real world.
* Develops strategies to manage impulses in a socially acceptable way.

SUPEREGO:
* Internalized moral compass.
* Represents societal and parental values.
* Strives for perfection and can cause feelings of guilt.

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18
Q

How do the id, ego, and superego interact?

A
  • The id, ego, and superego are in constant dynamic tension.
  • The ego has the tough job of balancing the demands of the id and the moral constraints of the superego.
  • Mental health, according to Freud, depends on a healthy balance between these components.
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19
Q

What are defense mechanisms?

A

Unconscious strategies employed by the ego to reduce anxiety caused by conflicts between the id and superego.
Examples:
Repression (pushing unacceptable thoughts out of awareness)
Projection (attributing one’s own negative traits onto others)
Displacement (redirecting emotions onto a safer target)

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20
Q

What are Freud’s psychosexual stages of development?

A

Oral Stage (0-1 year): Pleasure focused on the mouth (sucking, biting)
Anal Stage (1-3 years): Focus on control and potty training.
Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Oedipus/Electra complex, focus on genitals.
Latency Stage (6-puberty): Sexual impulses dormant, focus on social skills.
Genital Stage (puberty onward): Mature sexual interests and relationships.
Freud believed fixations in earlier stages can cause personality problems in adulthood.

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21
Q

What are the primary criticisms of Freud’s theory?

A

Lack of scientific rigor: Critics argue that many of Freud’s concepts are vague and difficult to test empirically.
Overemphasis on sexuality: Freud’s focus on sexual drives (especially in childhood) as the key to personality development is seen as too narrow.
Deterministic view: The theory suggests little room for free will or conscious choice in shaping personality.
Biased Sample: Freud based his theories mainly on case studies of wealthy, upper-class women, limiting their generalizability.
Neglect of Cultural Factors: Freud’s theory pays little attention to the influence of diverse cultures and social experiences on personality.

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22
Q

Criticism of Freud’s theory: Lack of Empirical Support

A

Many of Freud’s core ideas, like the unconscious mind and defense mechanisms, are difficult to measure or prove scientifically.
Reliance on subjective interpretation of case studies rather than controlled experiments makes his findings less reliable.

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23
Q

Criticism of Freud’s theory: Overemphasis on Childhood

A

Critics argue that Freud puts too much weight on early childhood experiences, underestimating the influence of ongoing development and change throughout life.
Modern research shows that personality continues to evolve, and life experiences beyond childhood can shape us significantly.

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24
Q

Criticism of Freud’s theory: Gender Bias

A

Freud’s views on female development (e.g., concept of “penis envy”) were seen as sexist and reflective of his era’s social biases.
Modern theorists emphasize a more balanced view of gender roles and psychological development.

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25
Q

What is the Trait Theory of personality?

A

A theory that focuses on identifying and measuring stable personality characteristics called traits.
Assumes that people possess consistent traits that influence their behavior across situations.

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26
Q

What are traits?

A

Enduring dispositions or tendencies that influence our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors across different situations and over time.
Examples: extraversion, openness to experience, conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism.

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27
Q

What are the key assumptions of Trait Theory of personality?

A

Traits are relatively stable: They provide a degree of consistency in our personality.
Traits are universal: All people possess the same basic traits, but to varying degrees.
Traits are partially inherited: Genetics plays a role in influencing our traits.

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28
Q

How are personality traits measured?

A

Primarily through self-report questionnaires: Individuals rate themselves on items related to different traits.
Examples of Trait Questionnaires:
NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI)
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

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29
Q

Strengths of Trait Theory of personality

A

Provides a descriptive framework: Describes and categorizes personality differences.
Strong predictive power: Traits can predict behaviors in various life domains (e.g., job performance, relationship success).
Foundation for extensive research: Has generated a wealth of scientific research on personality.

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30
Q

criticisms of Trait Theory

A

Oversimplification: May not capture the full complexity of personality
Limited explanation for change: Focuses on stability, less on how traits might evolve
Circular reasoning: Defining personality by traits, then using traits to explain behaviors.

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31
Q

What is the Big Five Model?

A

The most widely accepted model of personality traits.
Proposes that personality can be described along five broad dimensions: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism
Often remembered with the acronym OCEAN

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32
Q

Openness to Experience

A

High in Openness: Imaginative, curious, open to new ideas, enjoys variety
Low in Openness: Conventional, prefers the familiar, less receptive to change.

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33
Q

Conscientiousness

A

High in Conscientiousness: Organized, reliable, disciplined, dutiful, strives for achievement.
Low in Conscientiousness: More laid-back, less goal-oriented, may be seen as less dependable.

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34
Q

Extraversion

A

High in Extraversion: Outgoing, sociable, enjoys excitement, assertive, talkative.
Low in Extraversion: More reserved, prefers solitude, less energetic (introverted).

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35
Q

Agreeableness

A

High in Agreeableness: Empathetic, trusting, cooperative, helpful.
Low in Agreeableness: More skeptical, competitive, can be seen as less friendly.

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36
Q

Neuroticism

A

High in Neuroticism: Prone to worry, anxiety, moodiness, emotional instability.
Low in Neuroticism: Generally calm, emotionally stable, less reactive to stress.

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37
Q

Strengths of the Big Five Model

A

Scientifically Valid: Backed by extensive research and replicated across cultures.
Comprehensive: Captures a wide range of personality traits.
Predictive Power: Big Five traits can predict various behaviors and life outcomes (e.g., job performance, relationship success).
Practical Applications: Used in career counseling, team building, and even marketing.

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38
Q

Criticisms of the Big Five Model

A

Oversimplification: May not capture the full complexity and nuances of personality.
Limited Explanatory Power: Better at describing personality than explaining how it develops or changes.
Cultural Bias: Some argue the model may not fully translate to non-Western cultures.
Potential for misuse: Personality labels can be used to stereotype or stigmatize individuals

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39
Q

What is Carl Rogers’ Humanistic Theory?

A

Emphasizes personal growth, free will, and the drive towards reaching one’s full potential (self-actualization).
Focuses on the subjective experience of the individual and their conscious choices.
Contrasts with deterministic theories like psychoanalysis.

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40
Q

What is self-actualization?

A

The innate drive within all individuals to reach their full potential and become their best possible selves.
A continuous process of growth and development.
Requires a supportive environment and positive self-regard.

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41
Q

What is the Self and the Ideal Self?

A

Self (Self-Concept): Our perception of who we are, including our attributes, roles, and values.
Ideal Self: Our vision of who we would like to be.
Congruence: When the self and ideal self are closely aligned, leading to greater well-being.
Incongruence: A mismatch between the self and ideal self, leading to anxiety and dissatisfaction.

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42
Q

What are Conditions of Worth? Carl Roger’s humanistic theory

A

External standards or expectations that we feel we must meet to receive love and approval.
Can lead us to deny or distort parts of ourselves to fit others’ expectations.
Hinders self-actualization and creates internal conflict.

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43
Q

What is Unconditional Positive Regard?
As per Carl Roger’s Humanistic theory of personality

A

Acceptance and love regardless of behaviors or mistakes.
Key concept in client-centered therapy (developed by Rogers).
Promotes self-acceptance and allows for exploration of true feelings and experiences.
Contrasted with conditional positive regard, which is dependent on meeting specific standards.

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44
Q

Implications of Rogers’ Theory

A

Positive view of human nature: People are inherently good and driven towards growth.
Emphasis on empathy and understanding: Key components of effective therapy and relationships.
Influence on education and parenting: Promoting environments that foster self-acceptance and personal growth.

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45
Q

What is B F Skinner’s Behavioral Theory of personality?

A

A theory focused on observable behaviors and how they are shaped by environmental consequences (reinforcement and punishment).
Emphasizes the role of learning in shaping personality.
Rejects the focus on internal mental processes like thoughts and feelings.

Skinner focused on radical behaviorism - the idea that even seemingly internal events, like thoughts, are learned behaviors

46
Q

What is Operant Conditioning?

A

A learning process where behavior is shaped by its consequences
Key Concepts:
Reinforcement: Strengthens a desired behavior, making it more likely to reoccur.
Punishment: Weakens an undesired behavior, making it less likely to reoccur.

47
Q

Types of Reinforcement

A

Positive Reinforcement: Adding something desirable to increase a behavior (e.g., giving praise).
Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to increase a behavior (e.g., removing a chore for good grades).

48
Q

Types of Punishment

A

Positive Punishment: Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior (e.g., a scolding).
Negative Punishment: Removing something desirable to decrease a behavior (e.g., taking away TV privileges).

49
Q

How does Skinner’s Theory View Personality?

A
  • Personality is a collection of learned behavioral tendencies.
  • We have no true “self” or free will; our behaviors are determined by environmental forces.
  • Focuses on changing external factors to modify behavior rather than internal thoughts or feelings.
50
Q

Criticisms of Behavioral Theory

A

Overly simplistic: Ignores the complexity of human thought, emotion, and motivation.
Deterministic: Denies the role of free will and individual choice.
Potential for misuse: Concerns about manipulation and control via conditioning techniques.

51
Q

What is Social Cognitive Theory of personality?

A

A theory emphasizing the interaction between:
* Personal factors (thoughts, beliefs, expectations)
* Behavior
* Environment
Stresses the importance of observational learning and self-regulation.

52
Q

What is Reciprocal Determinism of social coginitive theory

A

Core concept of Social Cognitive Theory.
A continuous, dynamic interaction between:
Personal factors
Behavior
Environment
These factors constantly influence and shape each other.

53
Q

Observational Learning (Social Learning)

A

Learning by watching others (models) and the consequences of their actions.
Key processes: Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation

54
Q

What is Self-Efficacy of social coginitive theory?

A

Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish tasks.
Influences choices, effort, persistence, and emotional reactions.

55
Q

What is Self-Regulation of social coginitive theory?

A

The ability to control and direct our actions and emotions towards achieving goals.
Involves: Self-monitoring, Self-evaluation, and Self-reinforcement

56
Q

How is Social Cognitive Theory Unique?

A

Contrast with Behaviorism: Recognizes internal thoughts and beliefs as important influencing factors.
Contrast with Psychodynamic: Less emphasis on unconscious drives and childhood experiences.
Emphasizes the ability for conscious choice, self-direction, and learning through observation.

57
Q

What are Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages?

A

A theory proposing eight stages of development spanning the entire lifespan.
Each stage centers on a psychosocial crisis or conflict that must be resolved for healthy development.
Successful resolution leads to virtues; unresolved conflicts can cause difficulties later in life.

58
Q

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy: Birth - 18 months)

A

Key Crisis: Can the infant trust the world and caregivers to meet their basic needs?

Successful Outcome: Develops a sense of trust and hope.

Unsuccessful Outcome: Develops mistrust, fear, and anxiety about the world.

59
Q

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler: 18 months - 3 years)

A

Key Crisis: Can the child develop a sense of independence and control?

Successful Outcome: Develops a sense of will and self-confidence.

Unsuccessful Outcome: Feels shame, doubt, and a lack of self-control.

60
Q

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool: 3 - 6 years)

A

Key Crisis: Can the child explore, take initiative, and make decisions?

Successful Outcome: Develops a sense of purpose and ability to lead.

Unsuccessful Outcome: Feels guilt, fear of punishment, and lacks initiative.

61
Q

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age: 6 - 11 years)

A

Key Crisis: Can the child develop competence in skills and tasks?

Successful Outcome: Develops a sense of competence and belief in their abilities.

Unsuccessful Outcome: Feelings of inferiority and inadequacy.

62
Q

Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence: 12 - 18 years)

A

Key Crisis: Who am I? What are my values and place in society?

Successful Outcome: Develops a strong sense of identity and future direction.

Unsuccessful Outcome: Role confusion, uncertainty about self and place in the world.

63
Q

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood: 19 - 40 years)

A

Key Crisis: Can I form deep, meaningful connections with others?

Successful Outcome: Develops the ability for love and lasting commitments.

Unsuccessful Outcome: Feelings of isolation and loneliness.

64
Q

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood: 40 - 65 years)

A

Key Crisis: Have I made a meaningful contribution to the world?

Successful Outcome: Sense of care and concern for future generations.

Unsuccessful Outcome: Feelings of stagnation and lack of purpose.

65
Q

Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood: 65 years+)

A

Key Crisis: Can I find meaning and acceptance in my life as I face mortality?

Successful Outcome: Sense of wisdom and acceptance of life lived.

Unsuccessful Outcome: Despair, regret, and fear of death

66
Q

Who is Chris Argyris?

A

Organizational behavior theorist
Focused on how organizations influence individual growth and development
Proposed the Maturity-Immaturity Continuum model

67
Q

What is Argyris’ Maturity-Immaturity Continuum?

A

A model that describes the progression of personality development.
It’s a spectrum, not discrete stages: individuals can exhibit traits from both sides simultaneously.
Maturity is characterized by:
Active participation
Independence
Self-awareness and control
Immaturity is characterized by:
Passivity
Dependence on others
Lack of self-awareness

68
Q

How does Argyris’ model apply to workplace behavior?

A

Traditional, hierarchical organizations often foster immature traits: Limited decision-making, over-reliance on superiors.
This creates tension: Employees have needs for autonomy and competence, which are stifled.
Leads to: Apathy, frustration, conflict within the organization

69
Q

What can organizations do according to Argyris?

A

Reduce hierarchical controls/constraints
Increase employee participation in decision-making
Provide opportunities for growth and responsibility
This helps employees move towards maturity, leading to greater engagement and satisfaction.

70
Q

What are some criticisms of Argyris’ model?

A

Oversimplification
Cultural bias
Doesn’t fully address power dynamics within organizations

71
Q

What is Carl Jung’s Personality Typology?

A

A theory proposing that individuals experience the world through four primary psychological functions:
Sensing (S)
Intuition (N)
Thinking (T)
Feeling (F)
These functions combine with two core attitudes (Introversion and Extraversion) to form different personality types.

72
Q

Attitudes: Introversion (I) vs. Extraversion (E)
Carl Jung’s Personality Typology

A

Describes the direction of one’s energy and focus:
Introversion (I): Focus on the inner world of thoughts, ideas, and experiences.
Extraversion (E): Focus on the outer world of people, activities, and things.

73
Q

Psychological Functions: Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N)
Carl Jung’s Personality Typology

A

How we perceive information:
Sensing (S): Focuses on concrete facts, details, and the present moment.
Intuition (N): Focuses on patterns, possibilities, and the future.

74
Q

Psychological Functions: Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F)
Carl Jung’s Personality Typology

A

How we make decisions:
Thinking (T): Prioritizes logic, objectivity, and impersonal analysis.
Feeling (F): Prioritizes values, empathy, and personal impact.

75
Q

How are Jung’s types formed?

A

One attitude (I/E) and one function (S/N or T/F) are dominant, influencing behavior most of the time.
The other functions exist but are less developed.
Example: An INTJ type is primarily Introverted, focused on Intuition, and uses Thinking for decision-making.

76
Q

What are some common Jungian types?

A

ISTJ (Introverted Sensing Thinking Judging)
INFP (Introverted Intuitive Feeling Perceiving)
ESTP (Extraverted Sensing Thinking Perceiving)
ENFJ (Extraverted Intuitive Feeling Judging)
There are a total of 16 possible combinations.

77
Q

What is Friedman and Rosenman’s Type A and Type B Personality Theory?

A

A theory proposing two distinct personality types linked to heart disease risk.
Type A: Competitive, time-urgent, driven, impatient, and may be easily angered.
Type B: More relaxed, patient, easy-going, and less prone to stress.

78
Q

Friedman and Rosenman’s Type A Personality Characteristics

A

Intense drive and ambition
Strong need for control
High sense of time urgency
Prone to hostility and irritability
Difficulty relaxing

79
Q

Friedman and Rosenman’s Type B Personality Characteristics

A

Less competitive and aggressive
More relaxed and patient
Lower stress levels
More adaptable to change

80
Q

What is the Dark Triad?

A

A term for a cluster of three socially undesirable personality traits:
Narcissism
Machiavellianism
Psychopathy
People exhibiting these traits tend to be manipulative, self-centered, and lack empathy.

81
Q

Narcissism

A

Characterized by:
Grandiose sense of self-importance
Need for excessive admiration
Entitlement and expectation of special treatment
Exploitative or superficial relationships
Sensitivity to criticism, can be envious of others

82
Q

Machiavellianism

A

Characterized by:
Manipulativeness and cunning
Disregard for morality
Focus on self-interest and personal gain
Cynical view of human nature
Emotional detachment

83
Q

Psychopathy (subclinical)

A

Characterized by:
Callousness and lack of empathy
Impulsivity and thrill-seeking
Superficial charm, can be deceiving
Irresponsibility and disregard for rules
Lack of remorse or guilt

84
Q

What is perception?

A

Perception is the process of organizing, selecting, and interpreting sensory information to create a meaningful representation of the world.

It goes beyond simply receiving information; our brain actively constructs our experiences.

85
Q

What are the main stages of perception?

A
  • Sensory Stimulation
  • Transduction
  • Neural Processing
  • Perception
86
Q

Sensory Stimulation - stage of perception

A

Sensory organs (eyes, ears, nose, skin, etc.) detect physical stimuli from the environment (light, sound waves, etc.).

87
Q

Transduction - stage of perception

A

Sensory receptors convert the physical stimuli into neural signals (electrical impulses) that the brain can understand.

88
Q

Neural Processing - stage of perception

A

Neural signals travel along neural pathways to various brain regions for processing.

Different areas of the brain specialize in processing different types of sensory information (e.g., visual cortex for sight).

89
Q

Perception - last stage of perceptual process

A

The brain organizes and interprets the processed neural signals.

This creates our conscious experience of the world, including recognizing objects, sounds, and understanding meaning.

90
Q

What is perceptual selectivity?

A

The process by which we choose a small subset of information to focus on from the vast amount of stimuli constantly bombarding our senses.

It acts as a filter, helping us manage information overload and make sense of the world.

91
Q

Why do we need perceptual selectivity?

A

Limited Cognitive Capacity: Our brains cannot process everything at once.

Focus and Efficiency: Perceptual selectivity allows us to focus on what’s most relevant to our needs, goals, and current situation.

92
Q

Consequences of Perceptual Selectivity

A

Benefits: Allows for directed attention, reducing distraction.
Drawbacks: Can lead to missing out on other information (“tunnel vision”).
Biases: We may prioritize information that confirms our existing beliefs.

93
Q

Examples of Perceptual Selectivity

A

Cocktail party effect: Ability to focus on one conversation despite surrounding noise.

Inattentional blindness: Missing obvious changes because you’re focused elsewhere (e.g., the “invisible gorilla” experiment).

Advertising: Uses bright colors, novelty, or emotional appeals to grab attention.

94
Q

What are the main categories of factors influencing perceptual selectivity?

A
95
Q

What is perceptual organization?

A

The process of grouping and structuring sensory information into meaningful objects, patterns, and events.
It involves going beyond the raw data and adding order, so we perceive a coherent world rather than fragmented bits of information.

96
Q

Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization

A

Key principles developed by Gestalt psychologists in the early 20th century, demonstrating how our brains naturally impose order:
Similarity: We group similar elements together.
Proximity: Objects close together tend to be perceived as a group.
Continuity: We perceive smooth continuous lines rather than disjointed ones.
Closure: We mentally “fill in” gaps to perceive a whole object.
Figure-ground: We distinguish an object (figure) from its background.

97
Q

Additional Perceptual Organization Principles

A

Common fate: Elements moving in the same direction are perceived as grouped.
Symmetry: We tend to find symmetry aesthetically pleasing and perceive symmetrical elements as a unit.
Simplicity: We tend to interpret a stimulus in the way that creates the simplest possible shape or pattern

98
Q

Why is perceptual organization important?

A

Helps us quickly make sense of the vast amount of sensory data we receive.
Allows for efficient identification of objects, patterns, and relationships in the world.
Enables us to navigate and interact with our environment effectively.

99
Q

Example of Perceptual Organization

A

When looking at a tree, we don’t perceive it as separate leaves, branches, bark, etc. Our brain uses Gestalt principles to organize these fragments into a unified perception of “a tree.

100
Q

What are the main categories of factors that influence person perception?

A

Characteristics of the Perceiver: Our own traits, experiences, and biases.
Characteristics of the Target: The person we are forming an impression of.
Characteristics of the Situation: The context in which the perception occurs.

101
Q

Characteristics of the Perceiver

A

Personality: Extroverts might perceive others as more outgoing, while anxious individuals might see others as more threatening.
Past Experiences: Previous interpersonal experiences shape our expectations and influence how we interpret social cues.
Mood: Our current emotional state can color our perception of others.
Expectations: We can “see what we expect to see”, influencing our interpretations.

102
Q

Characteristics of the Target

A

Physical Appearance: Attractiveness, clothing, etc., can create strong first impressions.
Nonverbal Cues: Facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice convey information we use to make judgments.
Verbal Communication: What someone says and how they say it influences our perceptions.
Social Roles and Reputation: Knowing someone’s job title or knowing things about their reputation can bias our initial impression.

103
Q

Characteristics of the Situation

A

Social Setting: Whether we’re in a formal or casual setting can shape our perceptions and how we interpret behaviors.
Cultural Context: Cultural norms and values influence what we notice and how we interpret behaviors.
Power Dynamics: Perceptions of authority or hierarchy can influence judgments

104
Q

What are perceptual errors or distortions?

A

Misinterpretations of sensory information that lead to inaccurate or incomplete perceptions of the world.
They can result from internal biases, limitations of our senses, or misleading stimuli.

105
Q

Types of Perceptual Errors: Halo/Horn Effect

A

Halo Effect: Positive first impression based on one trait colors our overall perception (e.g., attractiveness bias).
Horn Effect: One negative trait leads to an overall negative impression.

106
Q

Types of Perceptual Errors: Stereotyping

A

Definition: Applying generalizations about a group to an individual, without truly considering their unique characteristics.
Example: Assuming someone is unintelligent because of their accent or assuming someone is good at math because of their ethnicity.

107
Q

Types of Perceptual Errors:
Primacy Effect

A

Definition: Placing greater emphasis on information presented early in a sequence.
Example: A series of mediocre job interview answers can be overshadowed by a strong initial impression.

108
Q

Types of Perceptual Errors:

Recency Effect

A

Definition: Placing greater emphasis on the most recently presented information.
Example: A strong final project presentation overshadowing a semester of mediocre work.

109
Q

Types of Perceptual Errors: Projection

A

Definition: Attributing our own unacceptable thoughts or feelings onto another person.
Example: A person who feels angry might assume others are also hostile.

110
Q

Types of Perceptual Errors Perceptual Defense

A

Definition: Ignoring or distorting stimuli that are threatening or personally challenging.
Example: Denying feedback that suggests a personal weakness or ignoring signs of a relationship problem.

111
Q

Types of Perceptual Errors

  1. Perceptual Illusions
A

Definition: Sensory information is misinterpreted, creating a perception that doesn’t match physical reality.
Examples:
Optical illusions: Lines appearing bent, shapes seeming to change size, etc.
Ambiguous figures: Images with multiple possible interpretations (e.g., the vase/faces image).

112
Q

Types of Perceptual Errors

Attribution Errors

A

Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing internal traits as explanations for others’ behavior, while underestimating situational factors.
Example: Seeing someone trip and assuming they’re clumsy, rather than considering an uneven floor.
Self-Serving Bias: Attributing our successes to internal factors (skill, hard work) and our failures to external factors (bad luck, difficult circumstances).

GR B - MGMT (5 decks)

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