Pepperberg

Question 1

Continuous reinforcement

Answer 1

When a learner receives a reward each time they perform a desirable behaviour

Question 2

M/R approach

Answer 2

a training method based on the concept of social learning. One human acts as a trainer of the second human who acts as a model to the real participant who is watching the interaction

Question 3

Category label

Answer 3

a short word or phrase that indicates the classification of a particular object in some way. In this study, these were: shape, colour and matter

Question 4

‘same’ and ‘different’

Answer 4

a cognitive skill identifying what objects have and don’t have in common; allowing us to classify objects. Previously, it was thought to only be present in humans

Question 5

Operational definition

Answer 5

when an non-directly measurable attribute, such as intelligence, is made directly measurable. In this study, Alex’s responses were only recorded as correct if it was the first vocalisation he gave
- increases reliability because researchers are likely to be more consistent in the way that they collect data

Question 6

‘first trial’ response rate

Answer 6

the quantitative data from the study - the percentage of correct responses that occurred the first, and only time, materials were presented to Alex

Question 7

Transfer of knowledge

Answer 7

to further test Alex’s abilities, Pepperberg wanted to test Alex on novel objects that weren’t in his labelling repertoire so he would have to apply his current knowledge of familiar objects to ones her had not seen before

Question 8

Self-injurious behavours

Answer 8

It was noted that Alex was prone to boredom, which is not uncommon amongst this intelligent parrot species. As a result, they often hurt themselves e.g. through feather picking

Question 9

What is the background?

Answer 9

• Non-human primates have cognitive capacity to express abstract ideas and meaningful sentences
• comprehension of same/different has been singled out as a concept not typically attributable to non-primates
• pigeons acquired a concept of same but not different
• none of the studies shown actual labeling of the relation of sameness or differences

Question 10

What are the 2 aspects for non-human to demonstrate ‘same’?

Answer 10

• recognise two independent objects A1 A2 are both blue, and it is the SINGLE attribute that makes them the same
• recognise the ‘sameness’ can be applied and transferred not only to 2 other blue items, but for 2 NOVEL, independent green items e.g. that have nothing in common with A1 and A2

Question 11

What can Alex do prior to the study?

Answer 11

• demonstrated capacity for categorisation
• could count up to 6
• use useful phrases like ‘I wanna go X’, ‘I want…’
• produce vocal labels for 5 colours, several shape
• could response to vocal question ‘what colour’, ‘what shape’

Question 12

What Pepperberg said that Alex did not show?

Answer 12

Did not show whether a non-human can understand and use ABSTRACT symbolic relationships when communicating, e.g. same/different comprehension

Question 13

What is the aim?

Answer 13

To see whether African Grey parrot could use vocal labels to demonstrate symbolic comprehension of the concepts of same and different

Question 14

How is Alex housed?

Answer 14

• free access to all parts of the lab 8hrs a day
• water and seeds supplied continuously
• toys: key, wooden blocks are available upon request
• during sleeping hours, confined to a wired cage

Question 15

What does the task have to ensure?

Answer 15

• the symbolic concepts tested would be more abstract
• subject given equal training on concepts of both same and different
• findings could not be dismissed as stimulus-specific associations
• first trial transfer test could be examined for their significance

Question 16

In order to be correct, what does Alex need to do?

Answer 16

• attend to multiple aspects of two different objects
• determine, from a vocal question, whether the response would be based on sameness or difference
• determine what was same or different
• produce vocally the label for this category

Question 17

How does the tested objects look like

Answer 17

• 2 objects that could differ with respect to 3 categories, colour, shape or material

Question 18

What do most previous research use? (the weakness)

Answer 18

• a 2 choice design, just indicate whether pairs match or do not match
• a topographically similar response for both answers (leverpressing or keypecking)
• same pairs are identical in all dimensions and different pairs are different with respect to most

Question 19

How is MR approach used in the study?

Answer 19

• one human acts as the trainer of a second human by presenting objects
• asking questions about these objects
• giving praise and reward for correct answers, showing disapproval of incorrect answers
• second human is the model for the bird’s responses, as a rival for the trainer’s attention
• roles of model and trainer is frequently reversed
• parrot is given opportunity to participate in these vocal exchange

Question 20

Describe the training

Answer 20

• a trainer hold 2 objects in front of the model, and ask either ‘what’s same’ or ‘what’s different’
• correct=reward, incorrect=scolded, object momentarily removed from view, then re-presented, question repeated
• roles reversed

Question 21

How long did training session last?

Answer 21

• 2-4 times a week
• 5min-1hr
• 9 months

Question 22

What boredom behaviours were observed?

Answer 22

• self-injurious

- restless, cease to work, interrupt with many successive requests for other items

Question 23

Examples for further trainings to prevent boredom

Answer 23

• number concepts
• new labels
• recognition of photos
• object permanence

Question 24

What is the procedure before testing?

Answer 24

• tested by secondary trainer who never trained Alex on same/different
• on the previous day, all of the possible objects to be tested were listed by the principal trainer
• a student not involved in testing would choose the question from pairs for same/different
• and randomly ordered all the question
• Alex nor the principle trainer could predict questions on which topic would appear on a given day

Question 25

How long did testing last?

Answer 25

• 26 months

- 1-4 times per week

Question 26

During testing, where did principle trainer stay, what did she do?

Answer 26

• sat in a corner of the room, with her back to the parrot
• did not look at the bird, did not know what was being presented
• repeated out loud what she heard the bird say

Question 27

During testing, how is the first trial response measured?

Answer 27

• If it was correct response, rewarded by praise and the object
• there were then no additional presentations of the same material during the test

Question 28

During the testing, how is the error measured?

Answer 28

• incorrect, object removed and emphatically said ‘NO’
• object immediately and repeatedly presented until a correct identification was made
• errors were recorded

Question 29

How is a ‘winstay’ strategy penalised during the testing?

Answer 29

• incorrect repetition of a previously correct response will get no reward

Question 30

How is overall test score obtained?

Answer 30

• dividing the total number of correct identifications by the total number of presentations required

Question 31

How is expectation cueing prevented?

Answer 31

• Alex was never tested exclusively on same/different questions and were never tested successively in one session on similar questions
• e.g. questions would have one particular correct response, like ‘colour’
• a question is repeated only if his initial answer was perceived as incorrect

Question 32

Give example for familiar objects

Answer 32

• blue wooden triangle and blue wooden square

Question 33

Give examples for novel objects

Answer 33

• pink woolen pompom

Question 34

What questions are asked during testing to prevent boredom?

Answer 34

What colour?
How many?
What shape?

Question 35

What is probe?

Answer 35

• objects that have 2 correct answers
  e. g. yellow wooden triangle and blue wooden triangle and ask ‘what’s same?’
• so the answer could be both shape and material
• if ignoring the question, would respond with 1 wrong answer

Question 36

What is an advantage of using probe?

Answer 36

• having 2 possible correct answers to against expectation cueing

Question 37

Why probes are included?

Answer 37

-Alex might not be attending to the questions, but merely be responding on the basis of the physical characteristics of the objects themselves

Question 38

What are the results for familiar objects?

Answer 38

• 77% correct overall

- 70% first trial

Question 39

What are the results for novel objects?

Answer 39

• 85% overall

- 82% on first trial

Question 40

What are the results for probes?

Answer 40

• 90% overall

- 89% first trial

Question 41

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 41

a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour.

Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behaviour and a consequence

Question 42

How does it support nature and nurture side of the debate?

Answer 42

• limit in the sounds that he could make

- can learn to speak

Question 43

How does it support situational debate?

Answer 43

• different performance in familiar and novel objects

Question 44

What is the conclusion?

Answer 44

• parrots have the potential to demonstrate the ability to comprehend the concept of same and different
• parrots are able to learn to respond to verbal questions using vocal categorical labels