People in Groups and Leadership Flashcards
What is a “group”?
2 or more people who share a common definition and evaluation of themselves and behave in accordance with the definition
What is “entitativity” in a group context?
It is a property of a group that makes it seem like a unified, distinct, and coherent entity rather than a random or loosely connected group.
Define what makes a group have “high-entativity”?
Clear boundaries, good internal structure, relative homogeneity; more interdepedency, tightly shared fate.
What makes a group have “low-entitativity”?
Fuzzy boundaries, fuzzy structure, relative heterogeneity.
According to Ferdinand Tönnies, what kind of group types do we have?
Gemeinschaft (community - based on close interpersonal bounds) and Gesellschaft (association - based on more formalized, impersonal bounds)
According to Debbie et al (1994) what kind of groups do we distinguish?
Common-bond groups (more egocentric individuals) and common-identity groups (more altruistic individuals, group membership important part of identity).
What types of groups do we distinguish?
- intimacy groups: family, friends
- task groups: work, study, sports team
- social categories: race, gender, nationality, social class
- loose associations: bus stop, neighbors
What are “social aggregates”?
Collections of unrelated individuals.
Define “individualists” vs “collectivists”.
Believe that people behave the same in a group as when they are alone vs. believe that groups evoke special type of behavior that only emerges i a group setting.
What are the 7 major emphases of what a group is?
Individuals who: interact with one another, are interdependent, join together to achieve a goal, perceive themselves to belong to a group, try to satisfy a need through their joint association, influence each other, whose interactions are structures by sets of roles and norms.
Define “social facilitation”?
Improvement in the performance when doing a task that is well-learnt/easy and deterioration of poorly learnt/difficult tasks in the presence of others.
What is “social inhibition”?
Impairment of a task performance.
What is “mere presence”?
Entirely passive and unresponsive audience, that is present only physically.
What are “audience effects”?
Impact of presence of others on individual task performance: social facilitation, social inhibition.
Describe “drive theory.”
It suggests that the physical presence of others causes arousal that motivates performance of habitual behavior patterns (if done correctly -social facilitation, if done incorrectly - social inhibition).
What is “evaluation apprehension model”?
Theory that people’s performance in group situation is influenced by their concern for being evaluated.
What is “distraction-conflict theory”?
It suggests that whether we pay more attention to the audience or to the task results in whether our performance increases/decreases.
What are the non-drive theories to explain social facilitation?
Self-awareness theory (compare their ideal/actual self - enhances focus), self-discrepancy theory (discrepancy between ideal/actual self increases motivation to bring in 1 line), self-presentation (concern with self-presentation - if errors with difficult tasks - increased embarrassment, hindered performance)
What are the group task taxonomy?
- whether separation of tasks is possible (divisible, unitary), 2. predetermined standard to be met (maximizing - open-ended, optimizing-task with a standard to meet), 3. how an individual’s inputs can contribute: discretionary (not required/essential but voluntary)
What types of group tasks do we know?
- additive (sum of individual’s inputs) 2. compensatory (average of individual inputs)
- conjunctive (least performing member)
- disjunctive (best individual input)
What are some processes that cause reduction of group performance?
Loss of motivation, loss of coordination, and loss of process.
Describe what a “free-rider” is.
A person benefiting from group’s achievements even though they are not contributing.
What is “Ringelmann effect”?
The tendency of an individual to put less effort into a task as the number of members of a group increases.
What is “social loafing”?
The tendency of an individual to perform less when in a group setting than alone. (scream on top of your lungs for example)
What are some reasons why social loafing occurs? (3)
- output equity (to match output of others) 2. evaluation apprehension (feel they don’t need to perform as much because groups offer them “anonymity”) 3. matching to standard (basing effort on the norm of the group)
What is “social impact”?
The influence of others on one’s thoughts, feelings and behaviors.
What is “social compensation”?
The tendency to increase their effort on a group task to compensate for the lower performance of others in a group.
Define group “cohesiveness”.
The property of a group that affectively bind people as group members to: 1. one another, 2. the group itself 3. giving the group a sense of solidarity.
How do “personal attraction” and “social attraction” differ?
Personal attraction is based on individual preferences an d interpersonal relationships; social attraction is based on common group membership and determined by person’s prototypicality of the group.
What are Tuckman’s (1965) 5-stages of developmental sequence of groups?
- forming, 2. storming, 3. norming, 4. performing, 5. adjourning
Define “group socialization”.
It is the dynamic relationship between the individuals and the group. It describes how individuals change to fit the group and how new individuals can be a source of innovation and change within the group.
What are the 3 processes involved in group socialization?
- evaluation (learning about group’s norms, values, expectations before joining)
- commitment (adjusting to group’s norms, etc. after joining)
- role transition (moving from 1 role to another within group)
What are the 3 types of roles in a group setting?
Non-members (prospective members, ex-members), quasi-members(new members without full status yet and members who lost status), full-members (full privelege, full responsibility)
What are the 3 functions of initiation rites?
- symbolic, 2. apprenticeship, 3. loyalty elicitation
What is “ethnomethodology”?
It is a method involving the violation of hidden norms to reveal their presence.
What are “moral principles” in a group?
They are fundamental organizing principles which regulate activation and inhibition of behavior.
Define “status”.
Status is a consensual evaluation of a role, member, or group in general.
What is status derived from?
2 sets of features: specific status characteristics (directly relevant to group tasks), diffuse status characteristics (not directly relevant to group’s task, but positively/negatively viewed by the society)
What are “schisms”?
It is the devision of a group into subgroups that differ by ideology, values, or attitudes.
What are “subjective group dynamics”?
That ingroup marginalised members are disliked more than outgroup members because they do not go with accordance with group’s norms/values which puts a bad name onto the identity of the group.
What is the “relational model of authority in groups”?
Effective authority is determined by relationships between leaders and members that are based on fairness and justice.
Define “distributive justice”.
It is the fairness of the outcome of a decision.
Define “procedural justice”.
It is the fairness of procedures used to make a decision.
Define what is “glass ceiling”
It is the invisible barrier that prevents women, and other minorities from attaining top leadership roles.
What is “role congruity theory.”
It is the theory which suggests that gender roles and stereotypes influence the choice of a leader, resulting in a bias favoring the choice of a male leader.
What is the “stereotype threat”?
It is the fear that one’s actions are going to confirm negative stereotypes about one’s group.
What is “glass cliff”?
The increased likelihood for women and other minorities to be chosen for leadership positions in the times of crises.
What 2 types of social decision schemes and how do they function?
Intellective tasks and judgemental tasks. Respectively truth-wins, majority-wins.
Define “groupthink”.
It is a phenomenon where a group of people prioritises group harmony and conformity over critical thinking and rational decision making.
Define “group polarization.”
It is a phenomenon where the group’s attitudes and opinions become more extreme after a discussion.
When does a “risky shift” occur?
It is a phenomenon when individuals take riskier decisions as a group than they would individually.
What are the 2 possible aspects of cultural values theory?
(people in groups use other members’ position to adjust their views about cultural factors, for social approval) 1. bandwagon effect (adopt group’s beliefs because of social pressure rather than individual judgement) 2.pluralistic ignorance (privately reject a norm, but assume other members accept it so they adhere to it)
