People Flashcards
JOHN WATSON
BEHAVIORIST THEORY
REWARD & PUNISHMENT
Watson’s behaviorist theory focused not on the internal emotional and psychological conditions of people, but rather on their external and outward behaviors. He believed that a person’s physical responses provided the only insight into internal actions. He believed individuals’ behaviors result from rewards and punishment.
WILLIAM SCHOFIELD
YAVIS & QUOID
The YAVIS and QUOID acronyms were coined by University of Minnesota professor William Schofield in his 1964 book Psychotherapy: The Purchase of Friendship in which he claimed to have demonstrated that mental health professionals often have a positive bias towards clients exhibiting the YAVIS traits. YAVIS refers to desirable clients and stands for Young, Attractive, Verbal, Intelligent, and Successful. QUOID stands for Quiet, Ugly, Old, Indigent, and Dissimilar.
ALBERT BANDURA
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Developed social learning theory, which combines social and cognitive factors. One of the central concepts of Albert Bandura’s social learning theory is self-efficacy, which is an individual’s belief that he or she is able to perform a certain behavior. Self-efficacy can be encouraged through modeling, observing others, receiving verbal persuasion from others, and staying in tune with one’s physiological states.
B. F. SKINNER
BEHAVIORIST
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Skinner referred to his own philosophy as ‘radical behaviorism’ and suggested that the concept of free will was simply an illusion. All human action, he instead believed, was the direct result of conditioning. He developed the theory of operant conditioning – the idea that behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments, which make it more or less likely that the behavior will occur again.
STANLEY STRONG
SOCIAL INFLUENCE COUNSELING MODEL
According to Strong’s social influence model of counseling, the client may view the counselor as being the expert, in that the counselor has a special set of skills and experience; attractive, in that the client wants to gain the counselor’s approval; and trustworthy, in that the counselor is seen as caring and wanting to help.
CARL WHITAKER
EXPERIENTIAL FAMILY THERAPY
MURRAY BOWEN
BOWENIAN SYSTEMS FAMILY COUNSELING
TRANSGENERATIONAL - TRIANGLES
Murray Bowen is well-known for his comprehensive contributions to the field of systems family counseling. Bowen’s approach is transgenerational, meaning that he believes communication patterns and dynamics are passed down from one generation to the next. He believes that triangles within family systems represent the most basic building blocks of a family’s emotional system. In a triangle, emotional discomfort that exists between two family members may be somewhat alleviated by bringing in a third family member to resolve the stress. Bowen also stresses the importance of self-differentiation, projection onto children in families, birth order and sibling position, and societal regression.
ANN ROE
PARENT INFLUENCES ON CAREER
Ann Roe operated from a needs approach and believed that individuals choose careers to meet needs based on parental influences and early childhood experiences. However, there is not a significant base of research to support this theory.
FRANK PARSONS
TRAIT-FACTOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORY
“FATHER OF GUIDANCE” - CHOOSING A VOCATION (1909)
Also known as the “Father of Guidance,” developed the trait-factor approach to career counseling. This approach requires the career counselor to study the individual, survey the occupations, and then match the person with an occupation. Frank Parsons was a university professor in the late 19th and early 20th century who was an advocate for the career guidance movement and wrote several books about the importance of vocational counseling. In 1909, Parsons’ most well-known book, Choosing a Vocation, was published posthumously and outlined the trait-factor theory of career development. The trait-factor approach was later refined by E. G. Williamson.
HARRIET LERNER
THE DANCE OF INTIMACY (1990)
WOMAN-FOCUSED
In her book The Dance of Intimacy (1990), Harriet Lerner presents the idea that women need to seek to establish a healthy balance between investment in others and investment in oneself. Lerner stresses the point that relationships should be based on mutual respect and appreciation, and that women should be independent and assertive.
GERALD CAPLAN
CONSULTATION IN COUNSELING MODEL
Caplan’s model of consultation in counseling is a mental health consultation model. In Caplan’s model, two professionals discuss issues specific to mental health diagnoses, such as eating disorders, and treatment. The center of discussion can be an individual client or family, the consultee and the client, treatment or a specific program, or the consultee and administration.
GERALD COREY
GROUP DEVELOPMENT STAGES
- STAGE 1: FORMATION - when the group counselor screens and selects group members.
- STAGE 2: ORIENTATION - During this stage, the group counselor typically states expectations and ground rules for the group and helps members share thoughts and feelings with each other. The counselor is particularly important during this part of the group process, as she or he models appropriate interpersonal skills and how to be genuine and spontaneous.
- STAGE 3: TRANSITION - which deals with handling resistance and conflict.
- STAGE 4: WORKING - when the group becomes more productive and less dependent on the leader.
- STAGE 5: CONSOLIDATION & TERMINATION - when group members prepare for the outside world
- STAGE 6: POSTGROUP ACTIVITIES - which include evaluation and follow-up referrals for other services
JOHN BERGEN
CONSULTATION MODEL
Bergen’s consultation model uses a behavioral approach that emphasizes the verbal interactions during consultation. The four stages of this model are problem identification, problem analysis, plan implementation, and problem evaluation. Bergan’s consultation model also focuses on problem behaviors, their antecedents, and their consequences.
DAVID WECHSLER
WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE
FLUID & CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE
David Wechsler is known for his contribution to intelligence tests for adults and children. His tests include the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. Wechsler believed that intelligence tests should focus on both verbal and performance skills, and they often help identify learning disabilities in children. Wechsler’s tests focus on both fluid intelligence (the ability to solve new problems) and crystallized intelligence, (learned skills that are influenced by education, culture, and personality).
DON DINKMEYER
SYSTEMATIC TRAINING FOR EFFECTIVE PARENTING (STEP) PROGRAM
Founded the Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP) program. Adlerian group counselors aim to help group members explore life assumptions, recognize their own strengths and accept responsibility, and increase self-esteem. The Adlerian group approach has been shown to be successful when used in parent education models in schools.
ABRAHAM MASLOW
HEIRARCHY OF NEEDS
BRUCE TUCKMAN
FORMING, STORMING, NORMING, & PERFORMING
Stages of intervention theory includes forming, storming, norming, and performing
ERIC BERNE
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
Eric Berne is the founder of transactional analysis, which is based on the idea that a life script develops in clients’ childhoods and influences a lifetime of behaviors. The goal of transactional analysis is to recognize ego state functioning and analyze one’s own transactions with others.
GILBERT WRENN
CULTURAL ENCAPSULATION
Gilbert Wrenn coined the term “cultural encapsulation” to refer to the tendency to disregard differences between cultures and individuals, the use of stereotypes in attempting to understand the world, and the implementation of only one type of technique with all counseling clients. Cultural encapsulation can severely limit the counselor’s effectiveness in effecting change, in understanding and joining with the client, and in developing his or her own self-awareness over time.
JOHN KRUMBOLTZ
LEARNING THEORY OF CAREER COUNSELING
Developed the learning theory of career counseling (LTCC), based on Bandura’s social learning theory. Because learning experiences over an individual’s lifetime influence career choice, the career counselor may need to challenge the individual’s beliefs and generalizations. Important concepts in Krumboltz’s theory include reinforcement theory, cognitive information processing, and classical behaviorism as ways of modifying and molding career development and decision making.
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
PRECONVENTIONAL - CONVENTIONAL - POSTCONVENTIONAL
Identified three levels of moral development that relate to the relationship between the individual and society. In the first level, preconventional, individuals judge the morality of an action based on its immediate consequences and rewards. During the conventional level of moral reasoning, individuals judge morality based on the comparison of actions to society’s expectations. During the final level, postconventional, individuals realize they are separate from society and can have principles and ethics different from the greater society.
DANIEL LEVINSON
STAGE-CRISIS VIEW THEORY
MID-LIFE CRISIS
Known for his work in defining developmental tasks during major stages of life. Daniel Levinson was a 20th-century American psychologist whose studies focused on typical stages in his adult subjects’ lives. Levinson’s Stage-Crisis View theory posits that there are predictable stable and transitional periods in life and that the social conflicts that arise during these periods must be resolved. He proposed that midlife crises are not only common but are part of normal, healthy development.
ALFRED ADLER
BIRTH ORDER
Alfred Adler is known for his theory of how birth order can affect children throughout the lifespan. According to Adler, following the birth of a second child the older sibling will likely seek comfort from the father. The oldest child can become perfectionist and authoritative, yet can learn to bear responsibility and be helpful to others.
JOHN HOLLAND
PERSONALITY CAREER THEORY
John Holland’s career theory is structural in approach, but he believes that career choice is an expression of personality. He identified six personality types that develop due to parental influences, genetic factors, and environment:
- REALISTIC (explicit tasks requiring physical work, e.g., mechanic)
- INVESTIGATIVE (intellectual and prefers systematic, creative activities)
- ARTISTIC (imaginative)
- SOCIAL (enjoys interacting with and helping others)
- ENTERPRISING (prefers leadership roles)
- CONVENTIONAL (practical and ordered)
ROBERT HAVIGHURST
THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
He focused on stages of growth and the importance of individuals mastering developmental tasks before moving from one stage to the next. These developmental tasks are those that result from physical growth, societal influences, and personal values.
FRED HANNA & BETTY CARDONA
MULTICULTURAL COUNSELING
Hanna and Cardona write that counselors who work cross-culturally should focus on freeing the client from ongoing oppression by using a variety of techniques. Hanna and Cardona believe that if clients do not release the pain and anger associated with oppression, they will not be able to achieve freedom.
SIGMUND FREUD
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Sigmund Freud is known as the father of psychoanalytic theory, in which the client is seen as the product of his or her childhood. Proponents of psychoanalytic theory believe that certain personalities exist because of the conflicts between impulses and the restraint of these impulses. Techniques often used in psychoanalysis include dream interpretation and free association as means of accessing the unconscious drives and motivations of clients.
ROBERT CARKHUFF
EMPATHY SCALE
Robert Carkhuff developed a 5-point scale for rating counselors’ responses depending on how empathic the responses are, with Level 1 responses not attending to the client’s affect at all and Level 5 responses adding significantly to the client’s affect and meaning. Robert Carkhuff is known for his contributions in the counseling field to the topics of empathy, genuineness, concreteness, and respect.
URIE BRONFENBRENNER
ECOLOGICAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Known for his ecological view of human development and his belief that it is important to examine all systems impacting an individual. A school-aged child is not only affected by his family and school, but also by his neighborhood, peers, and other groups.
CARL ROGERS
PERSON-CENTERED THEORY
Carl Rogers was a psychologist most well-known for his client-centered approach to psychotherapy. In his second book, Counseling and Psychotherapy, Rogers suggests that the client can resolve problems and gain insight into life struggles through a relationship with an empathetic, accepting therapist.
EDWARD THORNDIKE
LAW OF EFFECT
Developed the law of effect, which states that when a reward follows a stimulus-response connection, the connection is strengthened. Therefore, the law of effect determines the probability of a behavior being repeated based on its consequences.
IRVIN YALOM
GROUP COUNSELING & LEADERSHIP
He identified four stages: orientation, conflict, cohesion, and termination. He developed a list of eleven curative factors that he believes exist in successful group work.
According to Yalom, effective leaders use
- moderate amounts of emotional stimulation (in which counselors encourage healthy expression of emotions)
- moderate amounts of executive direction (which is characterized by the group leader structuring the group and ensures that the group is moving in a specific direction)
- frequent use of caring functions (which is characterized by warmth, acceptance, genuineness, and concern)
- consistent use of meaning attribution (in which the group leader provides a cognitive perspective to group members’ experiences).
VIRGINIA SATIR
HUMANISTIC FAMILY COUNSELING MODEL
Virginia Satir is widely known for her development of the humanistic model of family counseling. Satir believed that family members often take on one of five styles of communication: placater, blamer, superreasonable, irrelevant, and congruent communicator. Satir saw herself as a coach and teacher of families, and worked intimately with families by joining with them and sharing in the experience of being a family member.
WILLIAM GLASSER
REALITY THERAPY
Developed reality therapy, which asserts that individuals are in charge of their own lives and therefore determine their own fate. According to reality therapy, people have five genetically based needs: survival, love and belonging, power or achievement, freedom or independence, and fun. Taking responsibility is a key concept of reality therapy. Techniques used in reality group counseling include honest self-examination, evaluating behavior, formulating a plan for change, and following through with this plan.
THE GINZBERG GROUP
OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE (CAREER)
FANTASY, TENTATIVE, & REALISTIC
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma (also known as the Ginzberg group) believed occupational choice moved through three different stages: fantasy (birth to 11), tentative (11 to 17), and realistic (17 and up). The group posited that adolescent adjustment patterns play a significant role in career decision making.
ARTHUR JENSEN
PSYCHOMETRICS
GENETICS & INTELLIGENCE - G FACTOR
Arthur Jensen, an educational psychologist, was known for his contributions to psychometrics and the exploration of why individuals differ behaviorally from each other. His work is controversial, as he believed that genetic factors are the most powerful indicators of intelligence. Jensen wrote many publications about the g factor, the general intelligence factor, which he posited is highly correlated with biology and heritability.
DONALD SUPER
VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT STAGES & TASKS (CAREER)
LIFE-CAREER RAINBOW - ARCHWAY MODEL
VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT STAGES/TASKS - Super’s explanation of career development consists of vocational development stages and vocational development tasks. Vocational development stages are growth (development of capacity and interests), exploratory (tentative choices made), establishment (trial and stabilization), maintenance (adjustment process), and decline (retirement).
The vocational development tasks are crystallization (forming a vocational goal), specification (moving to a more specific career choice), implementation (entering employment), stabilization (performing a job), and consolidation (achieving status and advancing).
LIFE-CAREER RAINBOW - In the middle part of his career, Super acknowledged that career development involves not only the career but variables within the individual. His life-career rainbow acknowledges the eight life roles that many people hold (homemaker, spouse, parent, worker, citizen, leisurite, student, and child) and helps people think about the work/life balance in their lives.
ARCHWAY MODEL - Donald Super developed the Archway model as a way to show the factors that influence an individual’s self-concept. One pillar represents factors within the individual, such as personality traits and interests, and the other pillar represents external factors that influence career development, such as community and the economy.
STEVE de SHAZER
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
“SKELETON KEYS” - SOLUTION-FOCUSED
The social constructionist perspective operates from the viewpoint that we use language to construct a common reality with others, and that there are no objective “functional” family dynamics that apply to all family systems. Steve de Shazer’s philosophy is one that focuses on solutions rather than problems and underlying causes of those problems. Social constructionists assume that clients know how to solve their own problems but need help in constructing a new way to use the knowledge they already have. De Shazer also introduced the concept of therapists equipping clients with “skeleton keys,” interventions that can be used to solve many problems.
SALVADOR MINUCHIN
STRUCTURAL FAMILY THERAPY
Salvador Minuchin is best known for his development of structural family therapy, which is concerned with the transactional patterns between family members. The structure of these transactional patterns is the focus of family therapy, as the therapist attempts to change the patterns in order to redefine boundaries and restructure the family system.
ARNOLD LAZARUS
MULTIMODAL THERAPY
BASIC ID
Arnold Lazarus’ multimodal therapy is an eclectic approach based on behaviorism. There are seven interactive modalities used in multimodal therapy, which can be remembered by using the acronym BASIC ID. These include behaviors (B), affective responses (A), sensations (S), images (I), cognitions (C), interpersonal relationships (I), and drugs and biology (D). Counselors operating from this approach typically use anxiety-management techniques, biofeedback, relaxation training, and other behaviorally based interventions.
WILLIAM PERRY
INTELLECTUAL & ETHICAL DEVELOPMENT
Known for his work in combining intellectual and ethical development. William Perry’s scheme was used to explain college students’ journeys through intellectual and moral development, and has evolved to apply to other groups of people as well. Perry explains that there are three categories – dualism, discovery of relativism, and commitment to relativism – and nine positions spread across these categories. The final position is sometimes called post-commitment, when individuals realize that commitments are evolving and can sometimes be contradictory.
ERIK ERIKSON
8 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
LINDA GOTTFREDSON
CIRCUMSCRIPTION & COMPROMISE CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Known for her career development theory “Circumscription and Compromise,” posits that vocational self-concept develops in childhood and influences occupational selection. While various tasks are typically completed before the age of 14, in the teenage years and later self-awareness of one’s unique characteristics helps determine occupational selection. Orientation to sex and gender roles and social valuation typically occur in latency and preadolescent years. An individual progresses through four stages:
- Orientation to size and power (ages 3-5), when children think concretely and begin thinking about occupations they might like
- Orientation to sex roles (ages 6-8), when children learn that occupations are sex-typed and performed primarily by one sex or the other
- Orientation to social valuation (ages 9-13), when children realize that occupations vary in social value and desirability
- Orientation to internal unique self (ages 14 and up), when adolescents reflect on their own values and interests and use these to inform occupational decisions
JUDITH JORDAN
RELATIONAL-CULTURAL THEORY
WOMAN-FOCUSED
In the early 1990s, Judith Jordan and others presented the self-in-relation theory, a developmental theory of women. Central concepts of this theory are that people grow into relationships throughout life, positive relationships include mutual respect and empathy, engagements need to be authentic in order for relationships to grow, and mature functioning is characterized by meaningful connections, among other points. The self-in-relation theory is currently known as relational-cultural theory.
JACOB MORENO
PSYCHODRAMA & SOCIOMETRY
GROUP
Jacob Moreno is known for developing the technique of psychodrama in the early 20th century. This therapeutic approach, outlined in Moreno’s The Theater of Spontaneity, focuses on the current moments and interactions. The goal of psychodrama is to reorganize the individual’s perceptions and allow for insight and reality testing. The psychodrama includes a stage, and group members are assigned roles, such as representations of people and the audience. Sociometry, the study and measurement of social relationships, has been developed even more since Moreno’s death to be culturally and ethnically inclusive.
SIR FRANCES GALTON
EUGENICS
Sir Francis Galton was a cousin of Charles Darwin and studied anthropology and intelligence in the late 1800s. He believed that intelligence was completely determined by genetics and therefore could be cultivated through selective parenting. Eugenics refers to the process of genetically improving the human population.
R. K. COYNE
GROUP WORK GRID
The Group Work Grid refers to R. K. Coyne’s four levels of intervention: individual, interpersonal, organization, and community populations.
AARON BECK
COGNITIVE THERAPY
Aaron Beck is the main contributor to the field of cognitive therapy. He identified the concept of automatic thoughts in clients and their contribution to negative cognitive shifts. Beck believed that depression was caused by biological, genetic, personality, and stress factors.
JOHN BOWLBY
ATTACHMENT THEORY
John Bowlby is notable for his development of attachment theory and a focus on relationships in early childhood
MARK SAVICKAS
CAREER CONSTRUCTION THEORY
FLEXIBILITY & FREELANCE
Mark Savickas’ theory of career counseling is based on career construction theory, and he believes career counselors assist clients in making sense of their life and work. Savickas’ approach considers the changing nature of the workplace and the move toward flexible work schedules and more freelance employment.
WILLIAM MASTERS & VIRGINIA JOHNSON
SEX THERAPY APPROACH
Masters and Johnson are widely known for their contributions to the field of sex therapy. The Masters and Johnson approach was based on the belief that many people are too critical of their own sexual performance, leading to dysfunction. Therefore, their approach was to implement strategies to change the self-evaluation taking place.
JOHN CRITES
CAREER COUNSELING MODEL
DIFFERENTIAL, DYNAMIC, & DECISIONAL
John Crites’ model of career counseling is a comprehensive approach that requires the counselor to make three diagnoses of the problem. These diagnoses include differential (what are the problems?), dynamic (why have the problems occurred?), and decisional (how are the problems being dealt with?). Crites also believed that once the career problem has been diagnosed, the counselor should provide client-centered counseling, psychodynamic techniques, and trait-factor and behavioral approaches.
MARSHA LINEHAN
DIALECTICAL BEHAVIORAL THERAPY (DBT)
DBT has five specific states of change which the therapist will review with the patient: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance.
GAIL SHEEHY
PASSAGES: PREDICTABLE CRISIS OF ADULT LIFE (1976)
Wrote Passages: Predictable Crises of Adult Life in 1976. Known for her claim that life stages are marked by transitional periods that are likely to be different for each individual. Sheehy saw these stages as opportunities for growth, because crises challenge individuals to make positive changes.
STEPHEN KARPMAN
DRAMA TRIANGLE
VICTIM, PERSECUTOR, & RESCUER
Karpman’s ideas about why drama-intense relationships continue can be helpful for counselors working with clients. The Drama Triangle forms when three individuals take on the roles of victim, persecutor, and rescuer. Karpman’s theory suggests that conflict arises when one person takes on the role of victim or persecutor, and others step in to fill other roles due to each person’s unmet psychological needs.
JEAN PIAGET
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist and developmental theorist known for his theory of cognitive development. His theory is based on the belief that children learn best through interactions with others.
- SENSORIMOTOR (0-2) - Children experience the world through crawling and beginning to walk, as well as with their five senses
- PREOPERATIONAL (2-7) - The child begins to speak in multi-word sentences, expands his or her imagination, engages in symbolic play, and begins to possess a relative sense of time.
- CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (7-11) - Marked by an increased ability to think logically and about others’ perspectives.
- FORMAL OPERATIONAL (11-UP) - Children develop abstract thought and complex problem-solving skills.
H. B. GELATT
FIVE-STEP CAREER DECISION PROCESS
POSITIVE UNCERTAINTY
Presents a five-step process for making decisions about careers: recognize the need to make a decision, collect data, examine potential outcomes, attend to your value system, and make a temporary or permanent decision. The later research of H B Gelatt focused on the balance between reason and intuition when making career decisions and is termed “Positive Uncertainty.”
CHARLES SPEARMAN
SPEARMAN’S RHO
Known for his development of Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, or Spearman’s rho, the first statistical measure for intelligence tests. It determines how well the relationship between two variables can be described.
DAVID TIEDEMAN
CAREER DEVELOPMENT MODEL
ANTICIPATION/PREOCCUPATION - IMPLEMENTATION/ADJUSTMENT
For Tiedeman and his colleague O’Hara, career development and its accompanying cognitive development parallel Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Like Erikson, Tiedeman believed that each stage of career decision making consists of two phases, either Anticipation or Preoccupation and Implementation or Adjustment. The individual’s task is to differentiate the ego, resolve psychosocial crises, and process developmental tasks in order to successfully navigate career development.
