People

Question 1

JOHN WATSON

Answer 1

BEHAVIORIST THEORY

REWARD & PUNISHMENT

Watson’s behaviorist theory focused not on the internal emotional and psychological conditions of people, but rather on their external and outward behaviors. He believed that a person’s physical responses provided the only insight into internal actions. He believed individuals’ behaviors result from rewards and punishment.

Question 2

WILLIAM SCHOFIELD

Answer 2

YAVIS & QUOID

The YAVIS and QUOID acronyms were coined by University of Minnesota professor William Schofield in his 1964 book Psychotherapy: The Purchase of Friendship in which he claimed to have demonstrated that mental health professionals often have a positive bias towards clients exhibiting the YAVIS traits. YAVIS refers to desirable clients and stands for Young, Attractive, Verbal, Intelligent, and Successful. QUOID stands for Quiet, Ugly, Old, Indigent, and Dissimilar.

Question 3

ALBERT BANDURA

Answer 3

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Developed social learning theory, which combines social and cognitive factors. One of the central concepts of Albert Bandura’s social learning theory is self-efficacy, which is an individual’s belief that he or she is able to perform a certain behavior. Self-efficacy can be encouraged through modeling, observing others, receiving verbal persuasion from others, and staying in tune with one’s physiological states.

Question 4

B. F. SKINNER

Answer 4

BEHAVIORIST

OPERANT CONDITIONING

Skinner referred to his own philosophy as ‘radical behaviorism’ and suggested that the concept of free will was simply an illusion. All human action, he instead believed, was the direct result of conditioning. He developed the theory of operant conditioning – the idea that behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments, which make it more or less likely that the behavior will occur again.

Question 5

STANLEY STRONG

Answer 5

SOCIAL INFLUENCE COUNSELING MODEL

According to Strong’s social influence model of counseling, the client may view the counselor as being the expert, in that the counselor has a special set of skills and experience; attractive, in that the client wants to gain the counselor’s approval; and trustworthy, in that the counselor is seen as caring and wanting to help.

Question 6

CARL WHITAKER

Answer 6

EXPERIENTIAL FAMILY THERAPY

Question 7

MURRAY BOWEN

Answer 7

BOWENIAN SYSTEMS FAMILY COUNSELING

TRANSGENERATIONAL - TRIANGLES

Murray Bowen is well-known for his comprehensive contributions to the field of systems family counseling. Bowen’s approach is transgenerational, meaning that he believes communication patterns and dynamics are passed down from one generation to the next. He believes that triangles within family systems represent the most basic building blocks of a family’s emotional system. In a triangle, emotional discomfort that exists between two family members may be somewhat alleviated by bringing in a third family member to resolve the stress. Bowen also stresses the importance of self-differentiation, projection onto children in families, birth order and sibling position, and societal regression.

Question 8

ANN ROE

Answer 8

PARENT INFLUENCES ON CAREER

Ann Roe operated from a needs approach and believed that individuals choose careers to meet needs based on parental influences and early childhood experiences. However, there is not a significant base of research to support this theory.

Question 9

FRANK PARSONS

Answer 9

TRAIT-FACTOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORY

“FATHER OF GUIDANCE” - CHOOSING A VOCATION (1909)

Also known as the “Father of Guidance,” developed the trait-factor approach to career counseling. This approach requires the career counselor to study the individual, survey the occupations, and then match the person with an occupation. Frank Parsons was a university professor in the late 19th and early 20th century who was an advocate for the career guidance movement and wrote several books about the importance of vocational counseling. In 1909, Parsons’ most well-known book, Choosing a Vocation, was published posthumously and outlined the trait-factor theory of career development. The trait-factor approach was later refined by E. G. Williamson.

Question 10

HARRIET LERNER

Answer 10

THE DANCE OF INTIMACY (1990)

WOMAN-FOCUSED

In her book The Dance of Intimacy (1990), Harriet Lerner presents the idea that women need to seek to establish a healthy balance between investment in others and investment in oneself. Lerner stresses the point that relationships should be based on mutual respect and appreciation, and that women should be independent and assertive.

Question 11

GERALD CAPLAN

Answer 11

CONSULTATION IN COUNSELING MODEL

Caplan’s model of consultation in counseling is a mental health consultation model. In Caplan’s model, two professionals discuss issues specific to mental health diagnoses, such as eating disorders, and treatment. The center of discussion can be an individual client or family, the consultee and the client, treatment or a specific program, or the consultee and administration.

Question 12

GERALD COREY

Answer 12

GROUP DEVELOPMENT STAGES

• STAGE 1: FORMATION - when the group counselor screens and selects group members.
• STAGE 2: ORIENTATION - During this stage, the group counselor typically states expectations and ground rules for the group and helps members share thoughts and feelings with each other. The counselor is particularly important during this part of the group process, as she or he models appropriate interpersonal skills and how to be genuine and spontaneous.
• STAGE 3: TRANSITION - which deals with handling resistance and conflict.
• STAGE 4: WORKING - when the group becomes more productive and less dependent on the leader.
• STAGE 5: CONSOLIDATION & TERMINATION - when group members prepare for the outside world
• STAGE 6: POSTGROUP ACTIVITIES - which include evaluation and follow-up referrals for other services

Question 13

JOHN BERGEN

Answer 13

CONSULTATION MODEL

Bergen’s consultation model uses a behavioral approach that emphasizes the verbal interactions during consultation. The four stages of this model are problem identification, problem analysis, plan implementation, and problem evaluation. Bergan’s consultation model also focuses on problem behaviors, their antecedents, and their consequences.

Question 14

DAVID WECHSLER

Answer 14

WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE

FLUID & CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE

David Wechsler is known for his contribution to intelligence tests for adults and children. His tests include the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. Wechsler believed that intelligence tests should focus on both verbal and performance skills, and they often help identify learning disabilities in children. Wechsler’s tests focus on both fluid intelligence (the ability to solve new problems) and crystallized intelligence, (learned skills that are influenced by education, culture, and personality).

Question 15

DON DINKMEYER

Answer 15

SYSTEMATIC TRAINING FOR EFFECTIVE PARENTING (STEP) PROGRAM

Founded the Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP) program. Adlerian group counselors aim to help group members explore life assumptions, recognize their own strengths and accept responsibility, and increase self-esteem. The Adlerian group approach has been shown to be successful when used in parent education models in schools.

Question 16

ABRAHAM MASLOW

Answer 16

HEIRARCHY OF NEEDS

Question 17

BRUCE TUCKMAN

Answer 17

FORMING, STORMING, NORMING, & PERFORMING

Stages of intervention theory includes forming, storming, norming, and performing

Question 18

ERIC BERNE

Answer 18

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

Eric Berne is the founder of transactional analysis, which is based on the idea that a life script develops in clients’ childhoods and influences a lifetime of behaviors. The goal of transactional analysis is to recognize ego state functioning and analyze one’s own transactions with others.

Question 19

GILBERT WRENN

Answer 19

CULTURAL ENCAPSULATION

Gilbert Wrenn coined the term “cultural encapsulation” to refer to the tendency to disregard differences between cultures and individuals, the use of stereotypes in attempting to understand the world, and the implementation of only one type of technique with all counseling clients. Cultural encapsulation can severely limit the counselor’s effectiveness in effecting change, in understanding and joining with the client, and in developing his or her own self-awareness over time.

Question 20

JOHN KRUMBOLTZ

Answer 20

LEARNING THEORY OF CAREER COUNSELING

Developed the learning theory of career counseling (LTCC), based on Bandura’s social learning theory. Because learning experiences over an individual’s lifetime influence career choice, the career counselor may need to challenge the individual’s beliefs and generalizations. Important concepts in Krumboltz’s theory include reinforcement theory, cognitive information processing, and classical behaviorism as ways of modifying and molding career development and decision making.

Question 21

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

Answer 21

MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

PRECONVENTIONAL - CONVENTIONAL - POSTCONVENTIONAL

Identified three levels of moral development that relate to the relationship between the individual and society. In the first level, preconventional, individuals judge the morality of an action based on its immediate consequences and rewards. During the conventional level of moral reasoning, individuals judge morality based on the comparison of actions to society’s expectations. During the final level, postconventional, individuals realize they are separate from society and can have principles and ethics different from the greater society.

Question 22

DANIEL LEVINSON

Answer 22

STAGE-CRISIS VIEW THEORY

MID-LIFE CRISIS

Known for his work in defining developmental tasks during major stages of life. Daniel Levinson was a 20th-century American psychologist whose studies focused on typical stages in his adult subjects’ lives. Levinson’s Stage-Crisis View theory posits that there are predictable stable and transitional periods in life and that the social conflicts that arise during these periods must be resolved. He proposed that midlife crises are not only common but are part of normal, healthy development.

Question 23

ALFRED ADLER

Answer 23

BIRTH ORDER

Alfred Adler is known for his theory of how birth order can affect children throughout the lifespan. According to Adler, following the birth of a second child the older sibling will likely seek comfort from the father. The oldest child can become perfectionist and authoritative, yet can learn to bear responsibility and be helpful to others.

Question 24

JOHN HOLLAND

Answer 24

PERSONALITY CAREER THEORY

John Holland’s career theory is structural in approach, but he believes that career choice is an expression of personality. He identified six personality types that develop due to parental influences, genetic factors, and environment:

• REALISTIC (explicit tasks requiring physical work, e.g., mechanic)
• INVESTIGATIVE (intellectual and prefers systematic, creative activities)
• ARTISTIC (imaginative)
• SOCIAL (enjoys interacting with and helping others)
• ENTERPRISING (prefers leadership roles)
• CONVENTIONAL (practical and ordered)

Question 25

ROBERT HAVIGHURST

Answer 25

THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

He focused on stages of growth and the importance of individuals mastering developmental tasks before moving from one stage to the next. These developmental tasks are those that result from physical growth, societal influences, and personal values.

Question 26

FRED HANNA & BETTY CARDONA

Answer 26

MULTICULTURAL COUNSELING

Hanna and Cardona write that counselors who work cross-culturally should focus on freeing the client from ongoing oppression by using a variety of techniques. Hanna and Cardona believe that if clients do not release the pain and anger associated with oppression, they will not be able to achieve freedom.

Question 27

SIGMUND FREUD

Answer 27

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Sigmund Freud is known as the father of psychoanalytic theory, in which the client is seen as the product of his or her childhood. Proponents of psychoanalytic theory believe that certain personalities exist because of the conflicts between impulses and the restraint of these impulses. Techniques often used in psychoanalysis include dream interpretation and free association as means of accessing the unconscious drives and motivations of clients.

Question 28

ROBERT CARKHUFF

Answer 28

EMPATHY SCALE

Robert Carkhuff developed a 5-point scale for rating counselors’ responses depending on how empathic the responses are, with Level 1 responses not attending to the client’s affect at all and Level 5 responses adding significantly to the client’s affect and meaning. Robert Carkhuff is known for his contributions in the counseling field to the topics of empathy, genuineness, concreteness, and respect.

Question 29

URIE BRONFENBRENNER

Answer 29

ECOLOGICAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Known for his ecological view of human development and his belief that it is important to examine all systems impacting an individual. A school-aged child is not only affected by his family and school, but also by his neighborhood, peers, and other groups.

Question 30

CARL ROGERS

Answer 30

PERSON-CENTERED THEORY

Carl Rogers was a psychologist most well-known for his client-centered approach to psychotherapy. In his second book, Counseling and Psychotherapy, Rogers suggests that the client can resolve problems and gain insight into life struggles through a relationship with an empathetic, accepting therapist.

Question 31

EDWARD THORNDIKE

Answer 31

LAW OF EFFECT

Developed the law of effect, which states that when a reward follows a stimulus-response connection, the connection is strengthened. Therefore, the law of effect determines the probability of a behavior being repeated based on its consequences.

Question 32

IRVIN YALOM

Answer 32

GROUP COUNSELING & LEADERSHIP

He identified four stages: orientation, conflict, cohesion, and termination. He developed a list of eleven curative factors that he believes exist in successful group work.

According to Yalom, effective leaders use

• moderate amounts of emotional stimulation (in which counselors encourage healthy expression of emotions)
• moderate amounts of executive direction (which is characterized by the group leader structuring the group and ensures that the group is moving in a specific direction)
• frequent use of caring functions (which is characterized by warmth, acceptance, genuineness, and concern)
• consistent use of meaning attribution (in which the group leader provides a cognitive perspective to group members’ experiences).

Question 33

VIRGINIA SATIR

Answer 33

HUMANISTIC FAMILY COUNSELING MODEL

Virginia Satir is widely known for her development of the humanistic model of family counseling. Satir believed that family members often take on one of five styles of communication: placater, blamer, superreasonable, irrelevant, and congruent communicator. Satir saw herself as a coach and teacher of families, and worked intimately with families by joining with them and sharing in the experience of being a family member.

Question 34

WILLIAM GLASSER

Answer 34

REALITY THERAPY

Developed reality therapy, which asserts that individuals are in charge of their own lives and therefore determine their own fate. According to reality therapy, people have five genetically based needs: survival, love and belonging, power or achievement, freedom or independence, and fun. Taking responsibility is a key concept of reality therapy. Techniques used in reality group counseling include honest self-examination, evaluating behavior, formulating a plan for change, and following through with this plan.

Question 35

THE GINZBERG GROUP

Answer 35

OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE (CAREER)

FANTASY, TENTATIVE, & REALISTIC

Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma (also known as the Ginzberg group) believed occupational choice moved through three different stages: fantasy (birth to 11), tentative (11 to 17), and realistic (17 and up). The group posited that adolescent adjustment patterns play a significant role in career decision making.

Question 36

ARTHUR JENSEN

Answer 36

PSYCHOMETRICS

GENETICS & INTELLIGENCE - G FACTOR

Arthur Jensen, an educational psychologist, was known for his contributions to psychometrics and the exploration of why individuals differ behaviorally from each other. His work is controversial, as he believed that genetic factors are the most powerful indicators of intelligence. Jensen wrote many publications about the g factor, the general intelligence factor, which he posited is highly correlated with biology and heritability.

Question 37

DONALD SUPER

Answer 37

VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT STAGES & TASKS (CAREER)

LIFE-CAREER RAINBOW - ARCHWAY MODEL

VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT STAGES/TASKS - Super’s explanation of career development consists of vocational development stages and vocational development tasks. Vocational development stages are growth (development of capacity and interests), exploratory (tentative choices made), establishment (trial and stabilization), maintenance (adjustment process), and decline (retirement).

The vocational development tasks are crystallization (forming a vocational goal), specification (moving to a more specific career choice), implementation (entering employment), stabilization (performing a job), and consolidation (achieving status and advancing).

LIFE-CAREER RAINBOW - In the middle part of his career, Super acknowledged that career development involves not only the career but variables within the individual. His life-career rainbow acknowledges the eight life roles that many people hold (homemaker, spouse, parent, worker, citizen, leisurite, student, and child) and helps people think about the work/life balance in their lives.

ARCHWAY MODEL - Donald Super developed the Archway model as a way to show the factors that influence an individual’s self-concept. One pillar represents factors within the individual, such as personality traits and interests, and the other pillar represents external factors that influence career development, such as community and the economy.

Question 38

STEVE de SHAZER

Answer 38

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONIST PERSPECTIVE

“SKELETON KEYS” - SOLUTION-FOCUSED

The social constructionist perspective operates from the viewpoint that we use language to construct a common reality with others, and that there are no objective “functional” family dynamics that apply to all family systems. Steve de Shazer’s philosophy is one that focuses on solutions rather than problems and underlying causes of those problems. Social constructionists assume that clients know how to solve their own problems but need help in constructing a new way to use the knowledge they already have. De Shazer also introduced the concept of therapists equipping clients with “skeleton keys,” interventions that can be used to solve many problems.

Question 39

SALVADOR MINUCHIN

Answer 39

STRUCTURAL FAMILY THERAPY

Salvador Minuchin is best known for his development of structural family therapy, which is concerned with the transactional patterns between family members. The structure of these transactional patterns is the focus of family therapy, as the therapist attempts to change the patterns in order to redefine boundaries and restructure the family system.

Question 40

ARNOLD LAZARUS

Answer 40

MULTIMODAL THERAPY

BASIC ID

Arnold Lazarus’ multimodal therapy is an eclectic approach based on behaviorism. There are seven interactive modalities used in multimodal therapy, which can be remembered by using the acronym BASIC ID. These include behaviors (B), affective responses (A), sensations (S), images (I), cognitions (C), interpersonal relationships (I), and drugs and biology (D). Counselors operating from this approach typically use anxiety-management techniques, biofeedback, relaxation training, and other behaviorally based interventions.

Question 41

WILLIAM PERRY

Answer 41

INTELLECTUAL & ETHICAL DEVELOPMENT

Known for his work in combining intellectual and ethical development. William Perry’s scheme was used to explain college students’ journeys through intellectual and moral development, and has evolved to apply to other groups of people as well. Perry explains that there are three categories – dualism, discovery of relativism, and commitment to relativism – and nine positions spread across these categories. The final position is sometimes called post-commitment, when individuals realize that commitments are evolving and can sometimes be contradictory.

Question 42

ERIK ERIKSON

Answer 42

8 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES

Question 43

LINDA GOTTFREDSON

Answer 43

CIRCUMSCRIPTION & COMPROMISE CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Known for her career development theory “Circumscription and Compromise,” posits that vocational self-concept develops in childhood and influences occupational selection. While various tasks are typically completed before the age of 14, in the teenage years and later self-awareness of one’s unique characteristics helps determine occupational selection. Orientation to sex and gender roles and social valuation typically occur in latency and preadolescent years. An individual progresses through four stages:

• Orientation to size and power (ages 3-5), when children think concretely and begin thinking about occupations they might like
• Orientation to sex roles (ages 6-8), when children learn that occupations are sex-typed and performed primarily by one sex or the other
• Orientation to social valuation (ages 9-13), when children realize that occupations vary in social value and desirability
• Orientation to internal unique self (ages 14 and up), when adolescents reflect on their own values and interests and use these to inform occupational decisions

Question 44

JUDITH JORDAN

Answer 44

RELATIONAL-CULTURAL THEORY

WOMAN-FOCUSED

In the early 1990s, Judith Jordan and others presented the self-in-relation theory, a developmental theory of women. Central concepts of this theory are that people grow into relationships throughout life, positive relationships include mutual respect and empathy, engagements need to be authentic in order for relationships to grow, and mature functioning is characterized by meaningful connections, among other points. The self-in-relation theory is currently known as relational-cultural theory.

Question 45

JACOB MORENO

Answer 45

PSYCHODRAMA & SOCIOMETRY

GROUP

Jacob Moreno is known for developing the technique of psychodrama in the early 20th century. This therapeutic approach, outlined in Moreno’s The Theater of Spontaneity, focuses on the current moments and interactions. The goal of psychodrama is to reorganize the individual’s perceptions and allow for insight and reality testing. The psychodrama includes a stage, and group members are assigned roles, such as representations of people and the audience. Sociometry, the study and measurement of social relationships, has been developed even more since Moreno’s death to be culturally and ethnically inclusive.

Question 46

SIR FRANCES GALTON

Answer 46

EUGENICS

Sir Francis Galton was a cousin of Charles Darwin and studied anthropology and intelligence in the late 1800s. He believed that intelligence was completely determined by genetics and therefore could be cultivated through selective parenting. Eugenics refers to the process of genetically improving the human population.

Question 47

R. K. COYNE

Answer 47

GROUP WORK GRID

The Group Work Grid refers to R. K. Coyne’s four levels of intervention: individual, interpersonal, organization, and community populations.

Question 48

AARON BECK

Answer 48

COGNITIVE THERAPY

Aaron Beck is the main contributor to the field of cognitive therapy. He identified the concept of automatic thoughts in clients and their contribution to negative cognitive shifts. Beck believed that depression was caused by biological, genetic, personality, and stress factors.

Question 49

JOHN BOWLBY

Answer 49

ATTACHMENT THEORY

John Bowlby is notable for his development of attachment theory and a focus on relationships in early childhood

Question 50

MARK SAVICKAS

Answer 50

CAREER CONSTRUCTION THEORY

FLEXIBILITY & FREELANCE

Mark Savickas’ theory of career counseling is based on career construction theory, and he believes career counselors assist clients in making sense of their life and work. Savickas’ approach considers the changing nature of the workplace and the move toward flexible work schedules and more freelance employment.

Question 51

WILLIAM MASTERS & VIRGINIA JOHNSON

Answer 51

SEX THERAPY APPROACH

Masters and Johnson are widely known for their contributions to the field of sex therapy. The Masters and Johnson approach was based on the belief that many people are too critical of their own sexual performance, leading to dysfunction. Therefore, their approach was to implement strategies to change the self-evaluation taking place.

Question 52

JOHN CRITES

Answer 52

CAREER COUNSELING MODEL

DIFFERENTIAL, DYNAMIC, & DECISIONAL

John Crites’ model of career counseling is a comprehensive approach that requires the counselor to make three diagnoses of the problem. These diagnoses include differential (what are the problems?), dynamic (why have the problems occurred?), and decisional (how are the problems being dealt with?). Crites also believed that once the career problem has been diagnosed, the counselor should provide client-centered counseling, psychodynamic techniques, and trait-factor and behavioral approaches.

Question 53

MARSHA LINEHAN

Answer 53

DIALECTICAL BEHAVIORAL THERAPY (DBT)

DBT has five specific states of change which the therapist will review with the patient: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance.

Question 54

GAIL SHEEHY

Answer 54

PASSAGES: PREDICTABLE CRISIS OF ADULT LIFE (1976)

Wrote Passages: Predictable Crises of Adult Life in 1976. Known for her claim that life stages are marked by transitional periods that are likely to be different for each individual. Sheehy saw these stages as opportunities for growth, because crises challenge individuals to make positive changes.

Question 55

STEPHEN KARPMAN

Answer 55

DRAMA TRIANGLE

VICTIM, PERSECUTOR, & RESCUER

Karpman’s ideas about why drama-intense relationships continue can be helpful for counselors working with clients. The Drama Triangle forms when three individuals take on the roles of victim, persecutor, and rescuer. Karpman’s theory suggests that conflict arises when one person takes on the role of victim or persecutor, and others step in to fill other roles due to each person’s unmet psychological needs.

Question 56

JEAN PIAGET

Answer 56

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist and developmental theorist known for his theory of cognitive development. His theory is based on the belief that children learn best through interactions with others.

• SENSORIMOTOR (0-2) - Children experience the world through crawling and beginning to walk, as well as with their five senses
• PREOPERATIONAL (2-7) - The child begins to speak in multi-word sentences, expands his or her imagination, engages in symbolic play, and begins to possess a relative sense of time.
• CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (7-11) - Marked by an increased ability to think logically and about others’ perspectives.
• FORMAL OPERATIONAL (11-UP) - Children develop abstract thought and complex problem-solving skills.

Question 57

H. B. GELATT

Answer 57

FIVE-STEP CAREER DECISION PROCESS

POSITIVE UNCERTAINTY

Presents a five-step process for making decisions about careers: recognize the need to make a decision, collect data, examine potential outcomes, attend to your value system, and make a temporary or permanent decision. The later research of H B Gelatt focused on the balance between reason and intuition when making career decisions and is termed “Positive Uncertainty.”

Question 58

CHARLES SPEARMAN

Answer 58

SPEARMAN’S RHO

Known for his development of Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, or Spearman’s rho, the first statistical measure for intelligence tests. It determines how well the relationship between two variables can be described.

Question 59

DAVID TIEDEMAN

Answer 59

CAREER DEVELOPMENT MODEL

ANTICIPATION/PREOCCUPATION - IMPLEMENTATION/ADJUSTMENT

For Tiedeman and his colleague O’Hara, career development and its accompanying cognitive development parallel Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Like Erikson, Tiedeman believed that each stage of career decision making consists of two phases, either Anticipation or Preoccupation and Implementation or Adjustment. The individual’s task is to differentiate the ego, resolve psychosocial crises, and process developmental tasks in order to successfully navigate career development.