Pediatric Flashcards
(Chest) 8. Which of the following features is more likely to suggest extralobar rather than intralobar sequestration?
A. Visceral pleural investment
B. Greater association with congenital abnormalities
C. Repeated infections
D. Pulmonary venous drainage
E. Presentation in adulthood
B. Greater association with congenital abnormalities
The association with congenital abnormalities is greater in extralobar (50%) than intralobar sequestration (15%). Other features of extralobar sequestration include systemic venous drainage, having its own plural investment, and being symptomatic in the first 6 months of life.
(Chest) 18. A 40-year-old man with recurrent left lower lobe pneumonias presents with fever and cough. CT shows a well-defined area of low attenuation with fine enhancing septae within the area of consolidation. An anomalous vessel supplies the mass, apparently arising directly from the aorta. What is the most likely diagnosis?
A. Intralobar sequestration
B. Lymphoma
C. Bronchoalvolar cell carcinoma
D. Infected bronchogenic cyst
E. Congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation
A. Intralobar sequestration
The presence of systemic vascular supply to the infected segment and the history of recurrent infections makesintralobar sequestration the most likely diagnosis.
- Which is the most common location for congenital lobar hyperinflation?
A. Left Upper Lobe (LUL)
B. Right Upper Lobe (RUL)
C. Right Middle Lobe (RML)
D. Right Lower Lobe (RLL)
E. Left Lower lobe (LLL)
A. Left Upper Lobe (LUL)
Congenital lobar hyperinflation occurs most commonly in the LUL (42%) followed by the RML (35%). Imaging features include a radiodense lobe that becomes radiolucent and hyperexpanded as fetal fluid is replaced with air.
- As part of investigations for respiratory distress in a neonate, a CT chest is performed showing variable sized cysts in the left lower lobe which are measuring 3cm (multicystic mass of pulmonary tissue). Regarding congenital pulmonary airway malformation, which of the following is correct?
A. Is the second most common pattern of disease
B. Represents Type 2 disease
C. Represents Type 3 disease
D. The location determines the category of type (1/2/3)
E. Represents Type 1
E. Represents Type 1
Type 2 smaller cysts are 0.5-2cm. Type 3 appears solid but contains multiple small cysts (0.3-0.5cm). Type 1 is the most common.
- Which of the following suggests intralobar rather than extralobar sequestration?’
A. Own pleural covering
B. Systemic venous drainage
C. Symptomatic in first six months
D. Infarction rare
E. Congenital anomalies in 15%
E. Congenital anomalies in 15%
Other features of intralobar sequestration includes visceral pleural cavity (pathological findings), and venous drainage to inferior pulmonary vein. Extralobar are associated with 50% of congenital abnormalities.
- Regarding congenital diaphragmatic hernias:
A. Most commonly right-sided
B. Of Bochdalek type are anterior
C. Of Morgagni are posterior
D. Are associated with pulmonary hypoplasia
E. Are mostly diagnosed by postnatal ultrasound
D. Are associated with pulmonary hypoplasia
Most congenital diaphragmatic hernias are diagnosed by antenatal ultrasound, and are left-sided. Bochdalek hernias are posterior and common. Morgagni hernias are anterior and rare.
(Chest) 30. The chest radiograph of a 35-year-old male smoker, performed for immigration purposes, shows hyperlucency of the entire right lung, with a small ipsilateral hilum. Lung markings are seen to the periphery. An expiratory film performed immediately after reveals air trapping. Which is the most likely diagnosis?
A. Hypogenetic lung syndrome
B. MacLeod syndrome
C. Unilateral proximal obstruction of the right pulmonary artery
D. Bronchial obstruction
E. Unilateral bullae
B. MacLeod syndrome
MacLeod or Swyer-James syndrome manifests as hyperlucency with features of air trapping. The affected lung in proximal interruption of a pulmonary artery is often as opaque, or slightly more opaque, than the contralateral lung and there is no evidence of air trapping.
43 Which of the following conditions occurs more frequently in post-maturity rather than pre-term neonates?
(a) Germinal matrix haemorrhage
(b) Meconium aspiration
(c) Necrotizing entero-colitis
(d) Periventricular haemorrhage
(e) Respiratory distress syndrome
(b) Meconium aspiration
Meconium is the first stool passed, it is sterile and composed of epithelial cells, mucus, amniotic fluid, bile and water. Aspiration occurs if the meconium is expelled into the amniotic fluid prior to birth, or during labour. It is more common in post-mature births, if there is prolonged labour, and where foetal distress occurs during labour. Postmaturity is also associated with birth trauma and its sequelae, e.g. DDH. The other conditions are associated with prematurity.
7) A neonate in neonatal intensive care has an abdominal film showing an umbilical arterial catheter (UAC) and an umbilical venous catheter (UVC), both in good position. Which of the following features would help to determine which catheter is which?
a. UAC is smaller in calibre
b. tip of the UAC lies at T8 level
c. UAC courses down into pelvis before approaching thorax
d. UVC is longer than UAC
e. UAC tip always lies to the left of tip of the UVC
c. UAC courses down into pelvis before approaching thorax
The UAC passes along the umbilical artery to the internal iliac artery, from which it arises. It then passes up the common iliac artery into the aorta.
The UVC passes up the umbilical vein to the left portal vein, through the ductus venosus, into the middle or left hepatic vein and into the inferior vena cava.
The tips of the catheters may vary in position, but ideal placement of the UVC is around the T8–9 level, with high placement of the UAC being at the T7–9 level.
The tip of the UVC may lie on either side of the UAC depending on whether it reaches the inferior vena cava or remains in the left lobe of the liver.
The UAC and UVC are usually of the same diameter.
Their length is determined by their course, and is not a reliable predictor in identifying whether the catheter is arterial or venous.
11) A 2-year-old girl presents with respiratory distress following recent treatment for a chest infection that has been slow to resolve. A chest radiograph shows a large, well-defined mass in the lower right thorax. This comprises multiple cysts, with apparent hypoplasia of the ipsilateral lung, and is causing contralateral mediastinal shift. What is the most likely diagnosis?
a. bronchopulmonary sequestration
b. hypogenetic lung syndrome
c. congenital lobar emphysema
d. bronchogenic cyst
e. type I cystic adenomatoid malformation
e. type I cystic adenomatoid malformation
Cystic adenomatoid malformation (CAM) is a congenital cystic abnormality of the lung. There are three types: I – single/multiple large cysts of >20 mm; II – multiple cysts of 5–12 mm; III – solitary mass with microcysts. If undetected in utero, they usually present in the first year with respiratory distress and cyanosis, but can present later with recurrent infections. In type I CAM, the chest radiograph shows an expansile mass with multiple air- or fluid-filled cysts, with compression or hypoplasia of ipsilateral lung and contralateral mediastinal shift. Extralobar bronchopulmonary sequestration produces a wedge-shaped mass, usually posteromedially in either lung. Bronchogenic cysts are usually well-defined soft-tissue masses arising from the mediastinum and often present later in life. Hypogenetic lung syndrome produces a small hemithorax with reduced vascularity rather than a mass. Congenital lobar emphysema produces overinflation of one, or occasionally two, lobes, with hyperlucency. This may be mass like at birth due to delayed clearance of fluid.
@# 14) A 3-day-old boy presents with respiratory distress without cyanosis. Clinically, there is reduced air entry in the right hemithorax with dull percussion note. A chest radiograph shows an opaque right hemithorax with mediastinal shift to the left. Ultrasound scan shows a large effusion, which aspiration demonstrates to be milky. What is the most likely cause?
a. idiopathic
b. birth trauma
c. lymphangioleiomyomatosis
d. thoracic duct atresia
e. lymphangiectasia
a. idiopathic
Chylothoraces in neonates are usually right sided, and in most cases no obvious cause is found. Treatment is conservative with special formula and intermittent aspiration. All of the listed conditions are causes of chylothorax, but lymphangioleiomyomatosis presents in adult females and not in the neonatal period.
16) A newborn is found to have reduced air entry and breath sounds in the right hemithorax, but is otherwise well. A chest radiograph shows an opaque right hemithorax with ipsilateral mediastinal shift. Which feature on ventilation–perfusion scintigraphy would make the diagnosis of pulmonary hypoplasia more likely than complete collapse due to bronchial obstruction?
a. matched marked reduction in ventilation and perfusion
b. more marked reduction in perfusion than ventilation
c. more marked reduction in ventilation than perfusion
d. normal ventilation with reduced perfusion
e. normal perfusion with reduced ventilation
a. matched marked reduction in ventilation and perfusion
Pulmonary hypoplasia is the presence of a completely formed but congenitally small bronchus with rudimentary parenchyma and vessels.
This produces a matched marked reduction in ventilation and perfusion or, in severe cases, complete absence of both ventilation and perfusion.
In total lung collapse, the ventilation would be reduced or absent with often reduced, but better, perfusion.
20) A 7-year-old boy presents with a 1-week history of a cough productive of green sputum. He is pyrexial with a mildly raised white cell count. Which feature on the chest radiograph would be more suggestive of bacterial pneumonia than viral pneumonia?
a. pleural effusion
b. peribronchial cuffing
c. atelectasis
d. airspace opacification
e. cavitation
e. cavitation
Bacterial pneumonia is a combination of airway and alveolar disease, whereas viral pneumonia tends to affect airways and peribronchial tissues. Bacterial pneumonia produces two patterns of disease: lobar (consolidation, no volume loss, usually in one lobe, may cavitate) or bronchopneumonic (patchy airspace change which enlarges and coalesces, and volume loss due to mucus plugging). Viral pneumonia tends to produce peribronchial linear densities and an interstitial pattern, though airspace change may be seen in up to 50% of cases. Hilar adenopathy is not often seen, but effusions are present in 20% of cases. Pneumatoceles, pneumothorax and cavitation do not occur. Viral pneumonia may sometimes be complicated by bacterial pneumonia.
(Chest) 26) A 5-year-old female presents with intermittent, colicky, epigastric discomfort with no specific features. A CT shows transverse colon protruding through a small defect anteriorly in the diaphragm in a parasternal position. What is the most likely diagnosis?
a. Bochdalek’s hernia
b. Morgagni’s hernia
c. rolling hiatus hernia
d. eventration
e. septum transversum defect
b. Morgagni’s hernia
A Morgagni hernia is due to a developmental defect anteromedially in the diaphragm between the septum transversum and left (10%) or right (90%) costal margins. They are usually asymptomatic but can produce pain. They are usually small and present in older children or adults.
A Bochdalek hernia is a posterolateral developmental defect. It tends to be large, is more common on the left and presents in infancy.
Rolling hiatus hernia is herniation of the stomach through the oesophageal hiatus alongside the esophagus.
A septum transversum defect is a defect in the central tendon.
29) In hyaline membrane disease, which is the first feature usually seen on a chest radiograph in the initial stages?
a. reduced lung volumes
b. bilateral consolidation
c. granularity in both lungs
d. pleural effusions
e. white-out of lungs
c. granularity in both lungs
Hyaline membrane disease is due to deficiency of pulmonary surfactant, which causes alveolar collapse.
Prematurity, caesarean section and perinatal asphyxia are predisposing factors.
In the mild form, granularity is seen throughout the lungs as the first sign.
As the condition progresses, air bronchograms appear with eventual complete opacification of the lungs.
Changes are usually symmetrical if the condition is uncomplicated.
(Chest) 41) A 40-year-old female with known history of seizures and low IQ presents with severe shortness of breath, progressively worsening over a number of years. A chest radiograph shows extensive honeycombing throughout both lungs, which are of normal volume. A small pneumothorax is also seen on the right side. What is the most likely diagnosis?
a. sarcoidosis
b. cystic fibrosis
c. tuberous sclerosis
d. lymphangiomyomatosis
e. idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
c. tuberous sclerosis
The lung is involved in 5% of patients with tuberous sclerosis, with symptoms usually occurring in adult life, and it is predominantly women who are affected. There is interstitial fibrosis in the lower lungs with miliary nodular changes, which progress to honeycomb lung.
Recurrent pneumothoraces occur in 50% of cases.
Chylothorax may also be seen. Preservation of the lung volumes with honeycombing is seen in histiocytosis, neurofibromatosis and lymphangiomyomatosis, as well as tuberous sclerosis.
44) An 18-month-old girl has a cough. A chest radiograph shows consolidation in the right upper lobe. This is treated and a follow-up chest radiograph is performed, which shows a triangular-shaped mass arising from the mediastinum projecting over the right upper lobe. This has a rippled border. What is the most appropriate next investigation?
a. CTof chest
b. blood film
c. MR of chest
d. denatured red blood cell scintigraphy
e. no further investigation
e. no further investigation
The appearance is of a normal thymus, which is visible in 50% of children up to 2 years of age. It is usually seen as a triangular density arising from the superior border of the mediastinum (‘sail sign’), which has a rippled border due to indentation by the ribs (‘wave sign’). The shape may change with position and respiration.
(CVS) 53) A 25-year-old male presents with dyspnea on exertion, cough and hemoptysis. He has a history of recurrent chest infections as a child. A chest radiograph shows a hyperlucent left lung. A pulmonary embolus is suspected and a _V= _Q scan is arranged. This shows reduced perfusion and ventilation of the left lung, with delayed washout on ventilation. What is the most likely diagnosis?
a. acute pulmonary embolus
b. Macleod’s syndrome
c. congenital lobar emphysema
d. Poland’s syndrome
e. hypogenetic lung syndrome
b. Macleod’s syndrome
Macleod’s (Swyer–James) syndrome is a result of acute bronchiolitis in childhood causing obliterative bronchiolitis. There is usually a history of recurrent infections. Chest radiographs show hyperlucent lung with a small or normal-sized hemithorax. High-resolution CT shows reduced vascularity and attenuation of lung with air trapping.
Congenital lobar emphysema presents in the first 6 months of life with respiratory distress and a hyperlucent, overexpanded lobe (usually left upper) on the chest radiograph.
Poland’s syndrome is an absence of part of the pectoralis major muscle, which causes apparent hyperlucent lung, though the lung is normal.
Hypogenetic lung syndrome is usually asymptomatic and causes reduced volume of lung with reduced lucency.
56) A neonate presents with respiratory distress shortly after birth. A chest radiograph shows hazy opacification in the left upper zone, which improves over the next 7 days, and the chest radiograph becomes normal. Two months later, the baby re-presents with respiratory distress, and a chest radiograph shows hyperlucency in the left upper zone with contralateral mediastinal shift and compression of the adjacent left lower lobe. What is the likely diagnosis?
a. congenital lobar emphysema
b. Macleod’s syndrome
c. bronchiolitis obliterans
d. foreign body
e. carcinoid
a. congenital lobar emphysema
Congenital lobar emphysema results in progressive overinflation of one or more pulmonary lobes; it presents in the first 6 months of life with respiratory distress and cyanosis. The left upper lobe is most commonly affected. Imaging features immediately after birth are of a hazy, mass-like opacity, which represents delayed clearing of lung fluid in the emphysematous lobe. After clearing of the fluid, the affected lobe becomes expanded and hyperlucent on imaging, and causes mass effect and mediastinal shift.
Macleod’s syndrome is a complication of bronchiolitis, usually presenting with hyperlucency of one or both lungs.
Bronchiolitis obliterans usually occurs in adults, but may present in children following infection.
59) A 3-year-old boy presents with a cough of 1 week’s duration. There is no relevant preceding history. A chest radiograph shows lucency in the right lower zone, and an expiratory film demonstrates air trapping in the same region as well as mediastinal shift to the left. No masses are seen. What is the likely diagnosis?
a. foreign body aspiration
b. congenital lobar emphysema
c. congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation type I
d. bronchiolitis obliterans
e. bronchogenic cyst
a. foreign body aspiration
Foreign body aspiration is most common in children under 3 years of age. It presents with varying degrees of cough, and the chest radiograph usually shows overinflation, atelectasis, infiltrates and/or air trapping, which almost exclusively involve the lower lobes, with the right most commonly affected. A foreign body is seen in only about 9% of cases.
Congenital lobar emphysema presents with increased lucency, usually in the upper zones, with air trapping and mediastinal shift.
Cystic adenomatoid malformation type I usually presents as an expansile mass with multiple cysts.
Bronchiolitis obliterans tends to present in adults, though it may present in children, usually with generalized hyperinflation and patchy air trapping.
64) A 10 month old presents with recurrent chest infections, the most recent caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The chest radiograph shows patchy infiltrates in the right base. Which feature on high resolution CT would make the diagnosis of cystic fibrosis more likely than Williams–Campbell syndrome?
a. cystic bronchiectasis
b. emphysematous bullae
c. mucus plugging
d. lower lobe involvement
e. pleural effusions
c. mucus plugging
Cystic fibrosis usually presents in the first year of life with cough and recurrent infections or progressive respiratory insufficiency. The upper lobes are predominantly affected. High-resolution CT shows mucus plugging (tubular opacities), bronchiectasis, peribronchial thickening, bullous formation and collapse/consolidation.
Williams–Campbell syndrome is a congenital deficiency of cartilage in the fourth to sixth generation bronchi. This produces cystic bronchiectatic changes beyond 3rd bronchial generation and bullous changes. Mucus plugging is not a feature.
@# 74) A neonate is delivered following an uncomplicated pregnancy and presents with respiratory distress but no cyanosis. No resuscitation or ventilation is required. A chest radiograph shows a pneumothorax, which is treated by aspiration. What investigation should be considered?
a. cranial ultrasound scan
b. renal ultrasound scan
c. abdominal radiograph
d. barium swallow
e. ascending urethrogram
b. renal ultrasound scan
Spontaneous pneumothorax may occur in babies where there are renal anomalies, and routine ultrasound scan is recommended. This is often associated with maternal oligohydramnios, but this may not necessarily be present.
77) A 30-week premature baby is delivered normally and shortly after birth develops tachypnoea and expiratory grunting. What feature on the chest radiograph would make respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn more likely than meconium aspiration syndrome?
a. bilateral consolidation
b. pneumothorax
c. pleural effusion
d. air bronchograms
e. hyperinflation with air trapping
d. air bronchograms
Respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn is the commonest cause of respiratory distress in premature neonates, and is due to relative immaturity of type II pneumocytes. Features seen on chest radiograph are reduced lung expansion, bilateral and symmetrical consolidation, and prominent air bronchograms. These resolve over several days.
Meconium aspiration syndrome is the commonest cause of respiratory distress in full-term neonates. Hyperinflation, pneumothorax and pleural effusions are seen, as are diffuse patchy opacities due to atelectasis and consolidation. No air bronchograms are seen. Changes usually resolve in 48 hours.
4 A 1 year old boy presents with an acute history of cough, wheeze, and respiratory distress. Which of the following is true?
(a) Collapse of a lung or lobe is the commonest radiographic finding acutely
(b) An inhaled foreign body is equally likely to pass into either mainstem bronchus
(c) The majority of foreign bodies are radio-opaque and can be seen on CXR
(d) Mediastinal shift on expiratory radiographs/fluoroscopy is toward the lucent side
(e) Normal imaging excludes the diagnosis of inhaled foreign Body
(b) An inhaled foreign body is equally likely to pass into either mainstem bronchus
The majority of inhaled foreign bodies are food material (e.g. peanuts), thus are not radio-opaque.
The paediatric airway diameter increases inspiration, decreases in expiration - a partial obstruction in inspiration may become complete in expiration, allowing air-trapping in expiration.
The carinal angle is symmetric in infants making it equally likely that a foreign body will pass into either left or right mainstem bronchus.
Radiographic evidence of air trapping is typical, however, no imaging modality can definitely exclude the diagnosis, therefore, if the history is suggestive, the child should undergo bronchoscopy.