Patterns of Offending

Question 1

What does the age-crime curve show?

Answer 1

It illustrates that offending behaviour typically peaks in adolescence and declines in adulthood.

Question 2

What are LCP (Life-Course Persistent) offenders?

Answer 2

• Offenders who show continuity of antisocial behaviours throughout their lives, starting in early childhood.
• They represent a minority but commit a majority of crimes.

Question 3

What is heterotypic continuity in LCP offenders?

Answer 3

It refers to the persistence of various related behaviours (e.g., childhood conduct disorder, aggression, offending, substance misuse) underpinned by the same underlying traits.

Question 4

Name three longitudinal studies that provide evidence for the continuity of antisocial behaviour in LCP offenders.

Answer 4

1. Cambridge Study (UK).
2. Pittsburgh Youth Study (US).
3. Dunedin Study (New Zealand).

Question 5

What early life factors are associated with LCP offenders?

Answer 5

• Neuropsychological deficits, such as verbal and executive functioning deficits.
• Early experiences like maternal smoking, drug use, birth complications, and poor diet.
• Postnatal factors like poor parenting, family dysfunction, and socio-economic deprivation.

Question 6

How do neuropsychological deficits in LCP offenders impact parenting and behaviour?

Answer 6

“Difficult” temperament and behaviours strain parenting, leading to poor parent-child relationships and reinforcing negative behaviours.

Question 7

What factors maintain offending behaviour in LCP offenders?

Answer 7

• Negative reactions from school and peers.
• Poor social problem-solving skills.
• Cumulative consequences of antisocial behaviour.
• Lack of opportunities or willingness to desist.

Question 8

What is the primary cause of offending in AL offenders, according to Moffitt (1993)?

Answer 8

Social mimicry—imitating LCP peers to achieve desired outcomes, such as perceived maturity and independence.

Question 9

What is the “maturity gap,” and how does it relate to AL offending?

Answer 9

• The maturity gap arises when adolescents achieve biological maturity but lack social maturity and independence.
• It motivates AL offenders to mimic LCP behaviours to feel mature.

Question 10

Why do AL offenders typically desist from offending?

Answer 10

• Long-term reinforcements favour prosocial behaviour.
• Negative consequences of offending, such as school failure or legal sanctions, discourage further offending.
• They retain options to transition to prosocial lifestyles.

Question 11

What are “snares” in AL offending trajectories?

Answer 11

Events like school failure or official sanctions that can push AL offenders into persistent offending, resembling LCP trajectories.

Question 12

What proportion of adolescents are considered abstainers from antisocial behaviour?

Answer 12

Approximately 6%–12%.

Question 13

What characteristics are associated with abstainers?

Answer 13

• Lower exposure to delinquent peers and higher proportion of prosocial peers.
• Greater attachment to teachers and maternal monitoring.
• Less physically mature and autonomous.
• Relatively low levels of sadness and depression.

Question 14

How do longitudinal studies support Moffitt’s taxonomy of offending?

Answer 14

• Studies identify similar trajectories, including LCP, AL, and non-offenders.
• Some research reveals additional subgroups based on offending levels and age ranges.

Question 15

What did Keijsers et al. (2012) find about parent-child relationships in different trajectories?

Answer 15

• Non-offenders: Good quality relationships throughout.
• AL offenders: Good relationships in childhood, but quality deteriorates in adolescence.
• Persistent offenders: Poor relationships in childhood, worsening in adolescence.

Question 16

What did Wiesner et al. (2012) find about predictors of offending trajectories?

Answer 16

• High-level chronic offenders: Higher levels of childhood antisocial behaviour, attention problems, and parental antisocial behaviour.
• Low-level chronic offenders: Similar predictors but at lower levels.
• Deviant peer association influenced offending levels in all groups.

Question 17

How do male and female offending trajectories differ?

Answer 17

• Females are more likely to show low-risk, early-onset AL offending.
• Males are more likely to show late-onset AL or chronic offending.

Question 18

What factors influence offending trajectories in both genders?

Answer 18

Family functioning and early adjustment variables are consistent predictors for boys and girls.

Question 19

How many offending trajectory groups are typically identified in studies?

Answer 19

Most studies find 3–4 groups, including AL and LCP offenders and non-offenders.

Question 20

What methodological issue affects trajectory studies?

Answer 20

Short follow-up periods may misclassify some offenders, leading to inaccurate labelling of persistent offenders who may later desist.