Pathophysiology Flashcards
principle of complementarity
principle that the structure directly affects the function
tissue
same types of cells coming together
organ
at least 3 different types of tissue forming together (epithelial inside, smooth, then connective tissue)
types of tissues
muscle, nervous, epithelial, connective
function and types of muscle tissue
to contract. types include cardiac, skeletal, and smooth
Between skeletal, cardiac, and smooth, which are voluntary and involuntary
skeletal is voluntary and cardiac and smooth are involuntary
function and structure of skeletal muscles
function:moves bones. structure:long and cylindrical with striations.
location and number of nuclei per cell in cardiac muscles
only in the heart and one nucleus per cell
location and function of smooth muscle
innerlining of hollow organs (stomach, intestines) helps propel substances forward
function and location of nervous tissue
transmits electrical signals and located in the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system
different layers of epithelial tissue
simple(single cells), stratified(cells all over each other), and pseudostratified(still one layer but long columnar cells)
shapes of epithelial tissue
squamous(flat), cuboidal and columnar
location of epithelial tissue
on the skin
function and examples of connective tissue
provides structure and support. includes cartilage, bone and blood
having more collagen provides what?
strength
characteristics of connective tissue
has collagen, elastin and reticular fibers
what are reticular fibers?
a soft skeleton to support organs
types of connective tissue
areolar(binds skin to the muscles), adipose(fat), and fibrous (it contains a lot of collagen)
function and location of hyaline cartilage
provides a lot of elasticity. located in the ribcage
whats another name for chondrocyte cells?
also known as cartilage cells
elastic cartilage
able to stretch(ear)
what is contained in fibrocartilage? and what is the function?
contains a lot of reticular fibers and collagen. function is that it can absorb shock(knees)
where are the cartilage and bone cells located in?
they float around in the lacunae
function and what does the integumentary system consist of?
helps us process vitamin D and consists of the skin, hair and nails
what is the primary storage of the skeletal system
calcium
which system produces heat for the body when below average?
muscular system
which system distributes substances throughout the body
cardiovascular system
function of the lymphatic system
picks up anything that gets left behind by the cardiovascular system
which system regulates pH in the body?
urinary system
function of the endocrine system
makes hormones
normal range of blood pH
7.35-7.45
normal glucose range
70-120
which is the only system that doesn’t aim to maintain homeostasis
reproductive system
what are the 4 steps to maintain homeostasis
sensor, receptor, control center and effectors
function of sensor in homeostasis
senses when there’s changes in homeostasis
function of recepetor in homeostasis
sends information to the control center
function of control center in homeostasis
takes information and makes moves to help maintain homeostasis (almost always the control center is the brain
function of effectors in homeostasis
physical work of restoring homeostasis after receiving orders in the control center
negative feedback
goes against the stimulus. if its hot out, negative feeback would make your body cool
positive feedback
helps to strengthen the stimulus. during childbirth, body sends out signal to keep contracting and it keeps the woman constantly contracting.
function of ribosomes
decides where protein synthesis takes place
function of the smooth er
synthesizes fats and fatty hormones
function of Golgi apparatus
takes synthesized proteins, modifies them and packages it to be sent outside the cell.
function of centriole
organizes cell for division
what are cristae and its functions
they’re the folds within mitochondria and purpose is to increase surface area(more room to do stuff)
location and function of the matrix
located in the mitochondria and is critical in making energy via the citric acid cycle
what is the electron transport chain and its purpose
a series of enzymes located in cristae. purpose is to create a concentration gradient that makes ATP
what has to be outside the electron transport chain in order to make ATP
hydrogen ions
function of lysosome
degrade/damage organelles, breaks down foreign substances
function of peroxisomes
detoxifies free radicals(neutralizes them)
what is a free radical
a highly reactive chemical
structure of phospholipid
negatively charged head(hydrophilic) and positively charged tails(hydrophobic)
ligand
ion that binds to a receptor
how does the surface area affect the rate of net diffusion?
larger surface area gives faster rate
is facilitated diffusion considered active or passive transport?
passive
what is osmosis?
net movement of water
what are aqua porins?
channel proteins that are used for osmosis
osmolarity
concentration of a solution (number of solutes/liter)
osmolality
concentration of a solution (moles/kg)
tonicity
how a solution affects the cell volume
isotonic
Having the same concentration inside and outside the cell
hypertonic
excess solute inside the cell, causing it to shrivel up
hypotonic
too much water on outside, so cell sucks in water trying to achieve equilibrium, causing it to burst
two major mechanism of active membrane transport
active and vesicular
vesicular transport
uses vesicles to transport things into and out of cells
two kinds of active transport
primary and secondary
what is primary active transport?
energy is derived directly from the breakdown of ATP
what is secondary active transport?
energy is derived secondarily from stored energy
symport
substances moving in the same direction during active transport
antiport
while one substance moves in one direction in active transport, another substance goes in the opposite direction
mechanism of sodium-potassium pump
potassium start on the outside, sodium on the inside. sodium binds to carriers on inside, causing ATP to change to ADP, releasing 3 sodium to the outside. antiport is put into effect as 2 potassium attaches to the channel from the outside to enter the cell.
direction of concentration in sodium-potassium pump
moves from high concentration to low concentration
sodium-glucose symporter
transports sodium and glucose simultaneously the same way
pinocytosis
cells drinking the fluid that surrounds it
what is tight juntion, what is it made of, and can substances get through it?
tight spaces between cells that attach cells to each other and are made of occludin protein and restricts passages of certain substances between cells
what is adherens junction, what is it made of and can substances get through it?
attaches cells to each other, made of e-cadherins and substances can get through
what is desmosome junction, what is it made of and can substances get through it?
type of adherens junction but much stronger, contains keratin and substances can get through
what is gap junction, what is it made of and what does it do?
little proteins that form channels made up of connexin, one cells connexin can attach to another cells connexin to transport substances
is the inside of a cell positive or negative and why
negative because of fixed negative charged proteins
what is the resting membrane potential
-70mV
what are the types of ion channels
passive/leakage, ligand-gated, acetyl-choline and voltage-gated
what’s the passive/leakage ion channel?
constantly open and never closes
what’s the ligand-gated ion channel?
opens only when ligand attaches to it
what’s acetyl-choline ion channel?
channel that only allows sodium to enter the cell
what’s voltage-gated ion channel?
opens only when membrane potential changes
when is the action potential reached?
when the resting potential rises to -50 or -55mV
difference between graded and action potentials
graded:short-lived and localized signals. the further it goes, the smaller the intensity and results in either depolarization or hyper-polarization. action potential:long distance signals. intensity is maintained throughout and results in only depolarization.
depolarization
inside of the membrane becomes more positive
hyper-polarization
inside of the membrane becomes more negative than the resting potential
repolarization
the membrane returns to the resting potential
between activation and inactivation gates, which are opened and closed during the resting state?
activation gates are closed and inactivation gates are open
For the sodium-potassium pump, during depolarization, what gate is open/closed?
Na+ gates are opened; K+ gates are closed
For the sodium-potassium pump, during repolarization, what gate is open/closed?
Na+ gates are closed; K+ gates are open
what’s the correlation between axon diameter and the impulse?
the larger the diameter, the faster the impulse
what does myelin sheath do?
increases the impulse speed
what happens during the absolute refractory period?
during this time, it is impossible for action potential to be reached no matter how strong the signal is
how does the absolute refractory period stop the action potential?
prevents the neuron from generating the action potential, ensure that each action potential is separate and forces one way transmission
SNARE proteins
Soluble NSF Attachment protein Receptor. a large protein family consisting of more that 60 members. allows diffusion to occur
what’s the end process of the action potential?
- action potential reaches the nerve terminal to make it more positive
- this causes Ca+ to enter the terminal
- Ca+ binds to vesicles on the inside
- vesicles then fuse to the terminal, releasing neurotransmitters
what happens once the neurotransmitters are released?
they either bind to a receptor or float away and get broken down elsewhere in the body
what are the three subunits of the G protein?
alpha, beta, gamma
where’s the G protein found?
binded to the inside part of the membrane protein
process that G protein goes through
- ligand binds to outside of membrane protein
- ligand causes GTP to be attracted to the G protein
- causes G protein to split into the three subunits
- alpha triggers adenylate-cyclase to work
what does GS entail?
the G protein subunits
what is adenylate-cyclase?
speeds up the function of cyclic AMP (cAMP) from ATP
what does cAMP do?
activates protein kinase A
what does protein kinase A do?
phosphoralates things
what does GI do?
goes through the same track as the alpha subunit, except it does the exact opposite function (to untrigger adenylate-cyclase)
what does phospholipase C do?
breaks down phospholipids
which specific phospholipid does phospholipase C break down during the GQ process?
breaks down PIP2 into two parts, DAG and IP3
what does DAG do?
activates protein kinase C
what does IP3 do?
has Ca+ ions in ER which turn into calmodulion
what does GQ do?
activates phospholipase C
what are objective signs and symptoms?
can be measured (fever)
what are subjective signs and symptoms?
cannot be measured
what is etiology?
cause of a particular disease
what is idiopathic?
when there is no known cause for a disease
what does SOAP stand for and what is it?
Subjective Objective Analysis and Plan. these are the notes(medical history) of patients
what’s a degenerative disease?
caused by wear and tear, aging or trauma
what is neoplasia disease?
un-normal /uncontrolled growth of tissue(cancer)
what is atrophy?
cell size decreases and tissues waste away
what is dysplasia?
cells mature abnormally within the tissue, making cells vary in size and shape. has a large nuclei
what is phosphatidylserine and where is it located?
presented outside of the cell to let phagocytes know its ready for apoptosis, it is normally hidden within plasma membrane
why does a cell commit suicide?
this happens when programmed cell death is needed for cell development
what is always present when dealing with necrosis?
necrosis always has hypoxia associated with it
liquefication necrosis
dead cell tissues look liquified
how does coagulative necrosis look and what is it?
forms a firm gray mass under the skin, acidosis develops and cell proteins are denatured and coagulate
fat necrosis
lipase releases fatty acids which complex with calcium to form white, chalky deposits
caseous necrosis
a form of coagulative necrosis that has a cheesy look
how is gangrene recognized?
a considerable area of necrotic tissue is present due to hypoxia
what are the three types of gangrene?
dry, wet, and gas
Tay-Sachs disease
build up of lipids, causing excess cell death
neoplasms
new and abnormal growth of tissue, causes lump/tumor
hypoxia
deficiency in the amount of oxygen reaching tissue
what does lactic acid do to the pH of a cell?
it lowers the pH
what is glutathione, where is it made, and what does it do?
primary antioxidant in blood, made in liver, keeps body healthy by neutralizing free radicals
hydropic change
cells respond to injury by accumlating water
fibrosis, what is it and what is the issue with it?
replacement of normal tissue cells with scar tissue, tissue cells then become nonfunctional
what is necrosis, what is the process, what is the end result?
cell death in a tissue of a living person, cells swell then rupture and leak out, leads to inflammation and pain
what is apoptosis and what activates it?
programmed cell death, caspases help to activate apoptosis
dry gangrene
least dangerous type, tissue appears dry looking
wet gangrene
area is cold, swollen and moist. no clear line of when healthy tissue start and dead tissue end
what is gas gangrene and what causes it?
worst kind of gangrene, life-threatening, moves quickly. caused by the bacteria, clostridium
different treatments for gangrene
antibiotic, debridement (surgery to remove dead tissue), and maggots(eat dead tissue)
two common enzymes released due to necrosis
cpk (creatine phosphokinase) and LDH (Lactic Dehydrogenase)
what is pathologic calcification and what is its goal?
deposits of calcium on tissue. goal is to contain the damage
types of pathologic calcification
dystrophic/necrosis (contains the damage), metastatic, stone formation (calculi)
when is metastatic calcification present?
occurs when cancer is present. it contains the cancer cells
which calcification causes the most pain?
stone formation (calculi)
eschimea
lack of blood flow to a tissue
how is calcium an injurious agent?
it activates enzymes that do damage to cells such as hasten ATP depletion and damages chromatins
which cells never divide?
skeletal muscle cells and cardiac muscle cells
what are the regulatory genes of mitosis?
proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes
where do oncogenes come from and what do they do?
they’re mutated proto-oncogenes and causes mitosis to keep going
what happens when tumor suppressor genes become mutated?
they become inactive
G0 phase
resting phase, cells are doing nothing that has to do with division
What happens in the G1 phase?
Synthesis of proteins and some growth
What happens in the S phase?
DNA replication
What is the most sensitive phase to mutations?
The S phase
What happens in the G2 phase?
Preparation for mitosis
What happens in the M phase?
Mitosis
What proteins must be phosphorylated in order for cell division to begin?
Cyclin Dependent Kinases phosphorylates cyclin. Phosphorylation of RB protein
What is P53? Why is it dangerous and what is another name for it?
Its a tumor suppressor protein and is like the policeman that checks DNA for damage and attempts to repair, if it can’t repair it, it activates apoptosis. Its dangerous because mutations of it can cause cancer aka cyclin inhibitor
What does CDK inhibitors do?
Blocks interaction between cyclin and CDK to prevent division from beginning
How does DNA change occur?
Through UV radiation and inflammation
Carcinogens
Insert themselves within DNA strand, damaging DNA
H. Pyliori
Causes stomach ulcers and can lead to stomach cancer
well-differentiated cancer cells
look and behave like the cells of the tissues that they grew in, not very aggressive and slow acting
undifferentiated cancer cells
look and behave nothing like the cells of the tissues that they grew in, very aggressive and fast acting
stages of cell differentiation
totipotent, multipotent, mature
what is totipotent cell differentiation?
can form into all cell types in an organism
what is multipotent cell differentiation?
can develop into more than one cell type in a given organ
what is mature cell differentiation?
the end result of cell differentiation
nuclear hyperchromatism
increased density of the cells nucleus
stages of carcinogens
initiation, promotion and progression
initiation stage of carcinogens
when DNA sequences change
promotion stage of carcinogens
affected cell begins to grow and divide faster
progression stage of carcinogens
further growth and expansion occur, DNA is now much more prone to further mutation
gompertzian
growth curve of a tumor
what does VEGF stand for and what does it do?
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor. it’s the growth of new blood vessels in an attempt to starve tumor cells by cutting off their blood supply
what is neurogenesis?
creation of neurons
what are the types of cancer therapy?
curative, palliative, neoadjuvant, adjuvant, and maintanence
what is curative cancer therapy?
is intended to completely cure the cancer
what is palliative cancer therapy?
making the patient as comfortable as possible. not able to fully cure cancer
what is neoadjavant cancer therapy?
chemotherapy administered to reduce tumor as much as possible before going into surgery
what is adjuvant cancer therapy?
the surgery part after chemotherapy/neoadjavent
what is maintenance cancer therapy?
low dose chemo to prevent cancer from coming back once it’s gone
what are the two proteins that transport drugs out of the cell and why?
PGP (P-Glycoprotein) and multi-drug resistance transporter. they transport drugs out of the cancer cell to prevent the cancer cell from dying
what are the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
sensory(afferent) and motor(efferent)
what is the sensory/afferent division of PNS?
when the signal is going to the brain
what is the motor/efferent division of PNS?
when the signal is going from the brain to somewhere in the body to create an action
glia
supporting cells in the nervous system
astrocytes
most abundant, versatile, and highly branched glial cells
what is microglia and what is its function?
the immune system of the brain and functions to help get rid of debris in the brain
where are ependymal cells located and what is its function?
lines the central cavities of the brain. they have cilia that push cerebral spinal fluid to continue its course and filters out molecules that can be harmful
what are oligodendrocytes
branched glia and make myelin sheaths for neurons to speed up nerve conduction
3 main functions of myelin sheath
protects neurons from damage, insulates fibers to keep signals contained within neuron and speeds up conduction
what are schwann cells and where is it found
one large cell that wraps around axon to create myelin sheath and found in the PNS
what is neurilemma and what is it’s importance?
the outermost layer of schwann cells after they completely wrap around the axon. it contains all of the cells organelles including the nucleus
what are satellite cells and what do they do?
wraps around cell body of neuron and gives the cell body nutrients to survive
axon hillock
wide part of “cone” attached to cell body, action potential is generated here
what is nodes of ranvier and what is its purpose?
parts of axon not covered by myelin sheath and helps increase nerve conduction
neurofibrils function
help to maintain nerve cells shape
nissil bodies
“rough ER” of nerve cells, make proteins
structure and function of dendrites
contains all organelles of a normal cell except for a nucleus and receive electrical messages then send to the cell body in order for it to become active
anterograde
when the action potential moves towards their terminal
retrograde
when the action potential goes from nerve terminal to cell body (sometime viruses go retrograde to infect the cell body)
saltatory conduction
action potential jumping from node of ranvier to node of ranvier
what are neurotropic substances, when are they most active, and what is their role in adulthood?
they are proteins that stimulate neurons to grow. most active in fetal life and early infancy. used in adulthood only to repair damage to neurons
location and function of the blood-brain barrier
located in blood vessels in the brain and prevent toxic unwanted substances from reaching the brain
correlation between lipophilicity and the blood-brain barrier
the more lipophilic the substance is, the easier it is to get through the blood-brain barrier
what important organ lacks the blood-brain barrier?
the hypothalamus
what has a hard time getting through the blood-brain barrier?
ions, polar molecules and glucose
what is GLUT1 transporter?
transporter that helps glucose get across the blood-brain barrier
when is the blood-brain barrier done growing?
by the age of 2
difference between direct and indirect neurotransmitters
direct: fast and efficient and directly open ion channels
indirect: longer lasting and more widespread but it must go through a secondary messenger in order to open an ion channel
