Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

4th year > pathophys > Flashcards

pathophys Flashcards

1
Q
  1. General
A

etiology, pathogenesis, cellular mechanism, clinical, diagnostics, treatment, prognosis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q
  1. Health and disease
A

Health vs disease

noxas: physical, chemical, biological, psycho

reaction to noxa:
1. reaction - babinski sign
2. process
3. state

spreading: blood, lymph, neuro

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q
  1. health and disease
A

stages:
1. incubation
2. prodromal - first nonspecific symptoms
3. manifestation - specific symptoms
4. outcome - healing/chronic/death

time course: acute/chronic - 6weeks

classification:
- recurrence, new, etc.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q
  1. health and disease
A

Pathogenesis = mechanism of origin, development and course of disease

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q
  1. genes
A

1 single gene:
- cystic fibrosis (AR): CFTR, cl-
- sickle cell (AR): hemoglobin B
- achondroplasia (AD): dwarfism

1 chromosome:
- patau, edward, downs
- klinefelter (47XXY), turner (45XO)

multifactorial: hypertension, alzheimers

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q
  1. inflammation
A

macroscopic:
- 5 cardinal signs: redness, swelling, heat, pain, function

microscopic:
- alteration
- excudation
- proliferation - specific/nonspecific granulation tissue (fibroblasts –> fibrotization)

mediators: histamines, cytokines, prostaglandins, leukotrienes

course:
- acute: healing with/without defect
- chronic

factors affecting inflammation: circulation, DM, drugs, nutrition

systemic aspects:
- fever, leukocytosis, CRP, fatigue, loss of appetitte

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q
  1. hypersensitivity, autoimmunity, immunodeficiency
A

hypersensitivity:

  1. immediate - allergies –> IgE + basophils
  2. cytotoxic - autoimmune hemolytic anemia
    –> antibody + antigen
  3. immune complex - Arthus reaction
    –> antibody + antigen
  4. delayed - MS –> T-cells activated
  5. autoimmune - myasthenia gravis –> cell signaling

autoimmune:
1. local (organ-specific) - DM1, hashimoto, Crohn´s
2. systemic - scleroderma

immunodeficiency:
1. primary - genetic (B/T-cell deficiency)
2. secondary - acquired

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q
  1. response to noxas
A

factors: hypoxia, chemicals, microorganisms,

mechanisms: metabolism, protein synthesis, plasma membrane

general body response:
- CNS + Endocrine system

stress:
- stages:
1. alarm stage: SNS + pituitary gland
2. fight/flight: hypothalamus-hypophysis-adrenal cortex
3. exhaustion: death

stressors: somatic + psychological

effects of catecholamines:
- SNS effects
- cortisol effects

stress-related diseases: hypertension, asthma, ulcers, eczema, DM, fatigue

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q
  1. fluid + electrolytes
A

extracellular - 40%, Na+
intracellular - 20%, K+

Na/K ATPase

regulation:
thirst - osmolarity
ADH - kidneys
Na+ balance - RAAS

hypovolemia - RAAS/ADH
hypervolemia - edema

hypernatremia - 145mmol/L
hyponatremia - 135

hyperkalemia - 5.5mmol/L –> heart failure
hypokalemia - 3.5mmol/L

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q
  1. fluid + electrolytes
A
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q
  1. acid base
A

buffers:
bicarbonate
phosphate
hemoglobin
protein

  1. buffering
  2. respiration
  3. kidney

metabolic acidosis:
kussmaul breathing, hyperkalemia, vomiting

metabolic alkalosis:
tetany, hypokalemia, arrythmia

respiratory acidosis:
hypoventilation

respiratory alkalosis:
hyperventilation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q
  1. thermoregulation
A

low temp: thyroid hormones, SNS, shivering
high temp: sweating, SNS

fever - infection

hypothermia: under 35
frostbite - gangrene

hyperthermia: over 38,5
heat cramps/collapse

burns - blisters
large burns - distributive shock

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q
  1. thermoregulation
A
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q
  1. carbohydrate metabolism
A

primary:
glycogenosis
Von-Gierke - liver, glucose-6-phosphatase
Pompe - muscular

secondary:
DM
fructose - fructokinase + aldolase B
disaccharide deficiency

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q
  1. diabetes mellitus
A

acute:
ketoacidosis -
hypoglycemia - 3,9mmol/L
coma

chronic: microangiopathy: nephropathy, retinopathy, neuropathy

macroangiopathy: peripheral vascular disease, diabetic foot (gangrene)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q
  1. pain
A

somatogenic
psychogenic
nociceptive

acute pain
chronic pain - 6 months

pain threshold
pain tolerance

pain - age: resistance with age

nociceptors
spino-thalamic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q
  1. obesity
A

tests: BMI, skin thickness

primary/secondary

hypertrophic/hyperplastic

risk: MI, DM, hypertension, hyperlipidemia

exogenous/endogenous factors:

childhood obesity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q
  1. anemia
A

men: 13,5 g/L
women: 12 g/L

symptoms:

microcytic, normocytic, macrocytic

RBC loss:

autoimmune hemolytic: immunoglobulins
hereditary spherocytosis:
sickle-cell disease:
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase:

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q
  1. anemia - hemoglobinopathies
A
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q
  1. esophageal disorders
A

achalasia - no peristalsis, closed

diffuse esophageal spasm - hot/cold drinks

esophagitis - GERD/medication/allergies, ulcers/Barrets –> adenocarcinoma

tumors:
leiomyoma - benign
male 50 years
squamous cell carcinoma - 90%, middle esophagus
adenocarcinoma - distal esophagus, Barrets,

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q
  1. gastritis
A

antacids

acute:
edema

chronic:
autoimmune - no HCl –> no B12
helicobacter pylori

adenocarcinoma:
intestinal - helicobacter pylori
diffuse - worse prognosis
males 70 years
dysplasia
chronic gastritis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q
  1. peptic ulcer disease
A

stomach - eating pain
duodenum - fasting pain

Helicobacter pylori
NSAIDs
Zollinger-Ellison - gastrinoma
stress, smoking, alcohol

hemorrhage
perforation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q
  1. malabsorption
A

digestion:
pancreas enzymes + cholestasis + lactase

absorption:
celiac - gluten attack

fat - steatorrhea
proteins/carbs - diarrhea
iron/B9/B12 - microcytic anemia

anemia, osteoporosis, neurological

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q
  1. ileus
A

mechanical: adhesions, hernias, volvulus, IBD, intussusception

non-mechanical: paralysis, inflammation, hypothyroidism, electrolytes

pressure –> ischemia

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q
  1. diverticular + inflammatory colon
A

diverticular disease:
true/false
sigmoid colon
hematochezia vs melena
diverticulitis
fiber

crohn´s:
all layers, not continual

ulcerative colitis:
inner layer, continual

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q
  1. jaundice
A

prehepatic: hemolysis, malaria/transfusion, dark feces + normal urine

hepatic: Crigler-Najjar, pale feces + dark urine

posthepatic: pale feces, dark urine,

neonatal: low activity of conjugation, kernicterus,

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q
  1. hepatitis + cirrhosis
A

hepatitis:
acute/chronic - 6 months
A - acute, benign, fecal-oral
B - chronic, vaccine, blood, cancer
C - chronic, no vaccine!, blood, cancer
D - need B,
E - fecal-oral, pregnancy

cirrhosis:
fibrotization
central veins + sinusoids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q
  1. portal hypertension
A

cirrhosis
esophagus - esophageal varices
rectum - hemorrhoids
round ligament - caput medusa
12mmHg

splenomegaly
ascites
–> hepatic encephalopathy

prehepatic - obstruction
intrahepatic - cirrhosis
posthepatic - Budd-Chiari

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q
  1. cholecystitis + cholelithiasis
A

cholecystitis:
acute:
gallstone
bacteria –> peritonitis

chronic:
fibrotization –> porcelain gallbladder

cholelithiasis:
4F
cholesterol stones
bilirubin stones

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q
  1. pancreatitis
A

acute:
gallstones, alcohol, trauma

  1. interstitial - only edema
  2. hemorrhagic - sepsis

lipase + amylase
ultrasound

atlanta classification

chronic:
gallstones, alcohol
no pancreatic juice –> maldigestion + DM

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q
  1. mitral stenosis
A

mitral valve: LA –> LV

cause:
- rheumatic fever –> commissural fissure

what happens:
- concentric hypertrophy
- atrial fibrillation
- thrombus –> brain

symptoms:
- diastolic murmur

treatment:
- valve repair
- surgical replacement

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q
  1. mitral regurgitation
A

mitral valve: 2 leaflets, LV –> LA

cause:
- chordae tendinae
- papillary muscles

what happens:
- eccentric hypertrophy

symptoms:
- systolic murmur

treatment:
- valve repair
- surgical replacement

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q
  1. aortic stenosis
A

aortic valve: 3 leaflets, LV –> system

cause:
- chronic rheumatic fever

what happens:
- concentric hypertrophy

symptoms:
- systolic murmur
- microangiopathic hemolytic anemia

treatment: surgical replacement

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q
  1. aortic regurgitation
A

aortic valve: 3 leaflets, system –> LV

cause:
- 50% aortic root dilation
- dissection, aneurysm
- infective endocarditis
- chronic rheumatic fever

what happens:
- eccentric hypertrophy

symptoms:
- diastolic murmur

treatment: surgical replacement

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q
  1. tricuspid disease + pulmonary valve disease
A

valve: 3 leaflets

tricuspid regurgitation:
- eccentric hypertrophy
- distended jugular veins
- peripheral edema
- hepatosplenomegaly

tricuspid stenosis:
- rheumatic fever –> fibrotization
- arrythmia risk (pacemaker cells stretched)

pulmonary stenosis:
- concentric hypertrophy
- microangiopathic hemolytic anemia

pulmonary regurgitation:
- eccentric hypertrophy
- infective endocarditis
- rheumatic heart disease

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q
  1. circulatory shock
A

hypovolemic:
- non-hemorrhagic
- hemorrhagic

cardiogenic:
- cardiac tamponade
- endocarditis

obstructive shock:
- tamponade
- pulmonary embolism
- pneumothorax

distributive shock:
- septic shock: mast cells –> histamine
- anaphylactic shock: mast cells –> histamine
- neurogenic: spinal cord
- vasogenic: medicine

stages:
1. non-progressive
2. progressive

heart, kidneys, GIT, brain, lungs, liver:
- necrosis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q
  1. circulatory shock
A
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q
  1. circulatory shock
A
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q
  1. ischemic heart disease
A

causes:
- atherosclerosis
- vasculitis = kawasaki
- heart hypertrophy

risk factors:
- genetics
- LDL
- hypertension
- smoking
- DM

presentation:
- stable angina
- prinzmetal angina: smoking/alcohol

acute coronary syndrome:
- unstable angina
- STEMI
- NSTEMI

symptoms:
1. first 24 hours: coagulative necrosis, arrythimas, tachycardia, fibrillation, cardiogenic shock

  1. 1-3 days: neutrophils + fibrinous pericarditis
  2. 3-14 days: macrophages + granulation tissue
  3. 2 weeks: fibrotic tissue + angiogenesis
40
Q
  1. ischemic heart disease
A
41
Q
  1. ischemic heart disease
A
42
Q
  1. acute/subacute/chronic MI
A

right coronary: posterior + basal
left anterior descending: anterior + apical
left circumflex: lateral

mechanical dysfunction:
- contraction
- myocardial rupture
- pericarditis
- aneurysm

43
Q
  1. congestive heart failure
A

blood –> lungs

systolic heart failure:
- high volume, low stroke = below 40%

diastolic heart failure:

left-sided heart failure:
- stiffer myocardium
- lungs auscultation + dyspnea

right-sided heart failure:
- cor pulmonale
- blood –> system
- jugular distention, edema, hepatosplenomegaly, ascites

44
Q
  1. dysrrythmias - normal/abnormal automaticity
A

normal automaticity:
1. sinus bradycardia - 60bpm
2. sinus tachycardia - 100bpm
3. sinus arythmias - breathing

abnormal automaticity:
1. ectopic beats - premature beats + extra beats
2. atrial fibrillation - ectopic foci –> chaos
3. ventricular tachycardia -
4. ventricular fibrillation - cardiac arrest
5. wandering pacemaker - multifocal atrial tachycardia, irregular rhytm
6. sick sinus syndrome - delayed or no PQRST

45
Q
  1. dysrrhytmias - conduction
A

paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia - 150-200bpm

AV node reentral tachycardia: 120-250bpm, narrow QRS

Wolf-Parkinson-White: extra conduction pathways, ventricles pre-excitation

SA block:
- degree 1: no clinical manifestation
- degree 2: no PQRST + 2x PP loss
- degree 3: sudden loss of P then QRST

AV block: length of PQ
- no or decreased conduction
- degree 1 and 2: Mobitz type 1/2
- degree 3: full block

46
Q
  1. dysrrythmias - escape beats
A

escape beat = ectopic foci
premature beat = premature

atrial/AV/ventricular escape beat:
- atrial: P wave different, QRS narrow, 60bpm
- AV: no P wave, QRS narrow, 40-60bpm
- ventricular: no P wave, QRS wide, 25-40bpm

premature atrial/AV/ventricular beat:
- atrial: earlier abnormal P wave
- AV: no P, normal QRS
- ventricular: QRS wide, purkinje fibers

ventricular tachycardia:
ventricular flutter: 250-350bpm, between tachycardia and fibrillation
ventricular fibrillation: cardiac arrest

47
Q
  1. atrial flutter + fibrillation
A

atrial flutter:
- 1 ectopic focus
- sawtooth
- sometimes through AV node –> QRS
- normal ventricles

atrial fibrillation:
- 2 ectopic foci
- irregular rhythm
- sometimes through AV node –> QRS
- irregular, normal QRS

48
Q
  1. inherited heart disease - shunts
A

right to left shunt:
persistent truncus arteriosus
transposition of great vessels
tetralogy of fallot - ventricle septum
total anomalous pulmonary venous return
tricuspid atresia

left to right shunt:
ventricular septum defect
atrial septum defect
patent ductus arteriosus
coarctation of aorta

49
Q
  1. silent ischemic heart disease -
A

type 1,2,3

first 24 hours:
1-3days: fibrinous pericarditis
3-14days: macrophages, granulation tissue
2weeks: fibrotic tissue, angiogenesis

dysfunction:
contraction, rupture, pericarditis, aneurysm

50
Q
  1. circulation
A

hyperemia: red, temperature, cyanosis,
arterial - dilation
peristaltic -
venous - obturation

hemorrhage:
hypovolemia - class 1-4: 15%, 30%, 40%

thrombosis:
coagulative-thrombolytic factors
Virschow´s triad: blood flow + vessel + blood composition

thrombi:
red, white, mixed (bead, layered), hyaline (hyaline + thrombocytes)

ATH:
tunica intima
smoking, hyperlipidemia, obesity, lifestyle

51
Q
  1. thromboembolism
A

deep venous thrombosis:
endothelium, vasoconstriction, collagen + tissue factors, platelet plug, fibrin mesh, pulmonary embolism, Homan´s sign positive, virchow´s triad

postthrombotic syndrome:
chronic pain, swelling, redness, ulcers

52
Q
  1. systemic hypertension
A

acute:
180/120, pheochromocytoma, hypertensive crisis

chronic:
140/90
primary: obesity + stress + age,
secondary: kidneys, cushing syndrome, pregnancy

complications: heart, brain, eye, kidney

53
Q
  1. systemic hypertension
A
54
Q
  1. systemic hypotension
A

acute
chronic

circulatory collapse:
SNS + adrenal gland + emotions + stress

shock:
hypovolemic:
non-hemorrhagic + hemorrhagic

cardiogenic:
MI + cardiac tamponade

distributive = vasodilation:
septic shock
anaphylactic shock
neurogenic shock

syncope: loss of consciousness

55
Q
  1. symptoms of respiratory disease
A

cough:
3 weeks -
3months/2years: chronic bronchitis

sputum:
100ml

hemoptysis:

chest pain - pleural inflammation

digital clubbing - heart failure (bronchiectasis)

cyanosis - central/peripheral

hypo/hypercapnia: 45mmHg

56
Q
  1. obstructive disorders
A

test:
FEV1 and FVC1

COPD:
chronic bronchitis - mucus
emphysema - elasticity

asthma - inflammation
bronchiectasis - dilated bronchi

57
Q
  1. restrictive disorders
A

= decreased total lung capacity

pneumoconiosis
sarcoidosis - granuloma, giant cells with fibroblasts
hypersensitivity pneumonitis

extrapulmonary: obesity, myasthenia gravis

idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis:

58
Q
  1. ventilation disorders
A

obstructive:
COPD, asthma, bronchiectasis

restrictive:
pneumoconiosis, sarcoidosis

59
Q
  1. lung circulation disturbances
A

pulmonary hypertension: 25mmHg

pulmonary embolus:
dead space in lung perfusion
–> respiratory alkalosis

pulmonary edema:
cardiogenic - left heart failure
non-cardiogenic - bacteria, trauma, low proteins

60
Q
  1. regulation of breathing
A

control system:
medulla oblongata, aortic bodies, carotid sinus

CNS disorders - trauma, ALS
neuromuscular - myasthenia gravis
respiratory system - COPD, asthma
sleep apnea

cheyne-stokes respiration:
deeper –> gradual stop –> apnea

Biot´s respiration:
quick + shallow –> pons trauma + opioids

sleep apnea - obstructive/central

61
Q
  1. ventilation disturbances
A

ventilation/perfusion ratio = V/Q

apex/base?
alveolar dead space + pulmonary shunt + V/Q mismatch

low V/Q - chronic bronchitis, asthma, acute pulmonary edema

high V/Q - embolism, emphysema

62
Q
  1. respiratory failure
A

acute:
obstruction, lung injury, stroke
hypoxemic, hypercapnic, respiratory acidosis
sweat, anxiety, heart pump, arrythmia

chronic:
COPD, cystic fibrosis, neuromuscular, obesity, pneumonia

acute respiratory distress syndrome:
sepsis, aspiration, trauma –> inflammation
toxic agents + ROS + hyaline membrane

63
Q
  1. tests - obstructive
A

spirometry - FEV1, FVC
plethysmography

classifications:
residual volume - up
FRC - up
FEV1 - down
FVC - down

chronic bronchitis + emphysema + asthma + bronchiectasis

64
Q
  1. tests - restrictive
A

spirometry - FEV1, FVC
plethysmography

total lung capacity - down
FVC - up
FEV - up

65
Q
  1. chronic bronchitis + emphysema
A

chronic bronchitis: blue bloaters
mucus

emphysema: pink puffers
elasticity
centro-acinar - smoking
pan-acinar - alpha1anti-trypsin

66
Q
  1. asthma
A

inflammation + hypersensitivity
broncho-constriction –> narrowing - smooth muscle
eosinophils damage walls
sputum - crystals + spirals

ventolin

67
Q
  1. respiratory - defense mechanisms
A

physical:
- cilia, mucus, reflex (cough, sneezing)

chemical:
- surfactant, anti-microbial proteins

immunological - WBC:
- innate: macrophages, neutrophils, NK-cells
- adaptive: T-cells + B-cells

alveolar macrophages

68
Q
  1. anoxia
A

anoxia/hypoxia

generalized/tissue hypoxia -

hypoxic hypoxia - COPD + high-altitude
anemic hypoxia - anemia + blood
stagnant hypoxia - shock + heart-failure
histotoxic hypoxia - cyanide poison
metabolic hypoxia - sepsis

brain-damage: 3 min

necrosis

69
Q
  1. Oxidants + disturbances + consequences
A

respiratory burst - NADPH
reperfusion injury - ischemia
consequences - chronic diseases
defense mechanisms - glutathione + superoxide dismutase

70
Q
  1. Glomerular disorders
A

symptoms: oliguria, edema, hypertension

nephrotic syndrome: edema, proteinuria, lipiduria, albuminuria, hyperlipidemia

nephritic syndrome: oliguria, proteinuria, hematuria, hypertension

acute GN: nephritic syndrome, streptococcus, children, renal failure, IgG, IgM

rapidly progressing GN: nephritic syndrome

IgA nephropathy:

minimal changes: nephrotic syndrome

membranous GN: nephrotic syndrome

focal segmental: nephrotic syndrome

membranoproliferative GN: nephrotic syndrome + nephritic syndrome

71
Q
  1. tubular disorders
A

tubulointerstitial nephritis:
acute

chronic

acute tubular necrosis:

72
Q
  1. nephrotic syndrome
A

proteinuria

hypoalbuminemia

hyperlipidemia

73
Q
  1. glomerulonephritis - acute/chronic
A

acute

chronic: hyalinosclerosis

74
Q
  1. urinary tract obstruction
A

kidney stones:
- magnesium, citrate
- types: calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate, uric acid, struvite, cysteine
- symptoms:

hydronephrosis:
complications - serum creatitine + electrolyte imbalance + compression atrophy

75
Q
  1. pyelonephritis - acute/chronic
A

acute:
- ascending infection + blood infection
- wbc casts in urine

chronic:
- scarring + fibrosis

76
Q
  1. renal edema - hydronephrosis
A

hydronephrosis

77
Q
  1. acute renal insufficiency
A

symptoms: oliguria, uremia, high creatinine

prerenal: decreased blood flow, RAAS activated, hypovolemic state

intrarenal: acute tubular necrosis, nephrotoxins

postrenal: kidney stones, prostatic hyperplasia

consequences: hyperacidemia, hyperkalemia, hyperphosphatemia, hyperlipidemia, hyperuremia

78
Q
  1. chronic renal insufficiency
A

causes: hypertension, DM, inherited diseases

Hypertension: –> ischemia + glomerulosclerosis

DM: –> glomerulosclerosis
- efferent arterioles stiff and narrow

symptoms: hyperuremia, hyperkalemia, hypocalcemia

79
Q
  1. renal stones
A
80
Q
  1. chronic renal failure by DM
A
81
Q
  1. uremic syndrome
A

acute renal insufficiency

82
Q
  1. cerebral ischemia + hemorrhage
A

transient ischemic attack
atherosclerosis: middle cerebral + internal carotid
penumbra
cytotoxic edema
ROS
first 4-6h: brain edema (inflammation reaction)
symptoms: facial dropping, speech, weak arms/legs

83
Q
  1. extrapyramidal syndromes
A

involuntary movement, muscle rigidity

parkinson: dopamine-neurons in substantia nigra (basal ganglia), progressive, adult-onset
- symptoms: shaking, muscle rigidity

tremor: too much neural acitivity

tics:

huntington: basal ganglia, death
- symptoms: movement, cognition, emotion

bradykinesia: slow movement

dyskinesia: abnormal movement

84
Q
  1. myasthenia gravis
A

type 2 hypersensitivity

antibodies against ACH receptors on skeletal muscles
= muscle atrophy

young women + old men

symptoms: drooping eyelids, facial paralysis, respiratory paralysis,

85
Q
  1. intracranial pressure
A

cranial cavity:
- 0-15mmHg pressure, respiration/coughing/sneezing, 80% brain tissue

causes: tumor, trauma, hemorrhage, edema

syptoms: eyes, seizure, motor function, vital signs

treatment: medication, ventricular drainage, elevation of head, hyperventilation (CO2 –> vasoconstriction)

86
Q
  1. spinal shock + spinal injuries
A

vulnerable: cervico-thoracic + thoraco-lumbar

hemorrhage + edema –> hypoxia + necrosis

neurogenic shock: above T6
–> hypotension/bradycardia

cervical cord injury: above C4
–> respiration problems

T2-T12: full upper body control
L1-L5: some leg control
S1-S5: some foot control,
bowel/bladder problems

87
Q
  1. cerebellum
A

posterior cranial fossa
superior cerebellar peduncle –> brainstem
middle cerebellar peduncle –> midbrain
inferior cerebellar peduncle –> medulla oblongata

nystagmus
cerebellar ataxia - no coordination
cerebellar tremor

88
Q
  1. thalamus + hypothalamus
A

process sensory stimuli –> body reaction

2 thalamic structures –> cerebral cortex + cerebellum + subcortical areas

thalamus:
sensory processing
thalamic pain syndrome
movement disorders

hypothalamus:
ANS, behaviour, emotions
regulate pituitary gland release hormones

neuroendocrine regulation
autonomic function
sleep
appetite, energy

89
Q
  1. brain stem
A

medulla oblongata - cardiac, respiratory, vomiting
pons - respiratory, trigeminal CN + facial CN
midbrain - eyes reflex, ears reflex, muscle rigidity, tremor

ischemic stroke
hemorrhagic stroke
traumatic brain injury
tumors
inflammation + infection - meningitis, encephalitis, MS
degenerative - Parkinson

90
Q
  1. brain/spinal-cord tumors
A

astrocytoma: glial cells, adults

ependymoma: ependymal cells, children

medulloblastoma: cerebellum, children, metastasis

extradural: bone, malignant, metastasis
intradural: benign, extramedullary/intramedullary

91
Q
  1. menopause
A

climax - transitional phase
menopause - 1 year since last menstruation, no follicles responding to FSH/LH

perimenopause:
- some years before
- without ovulation
- less estrogen/progesterone
- higher FSH + less estrogen –> hot flashes + night sweats
- less estrogen = cardiovascular disease + osteoporosis
- mood swings

92
Q
  1. male reproductive
A

hypogonadism - testosterone

primary:
- klinefelter
- cryptorchidism

secondary:
- pituitary disorders
- obesity

fetal life, puberty, adulthood

93
Q
  1. joints
A

osteoarthritis:
- synovial joints
- inflammation + pain
- risk: age, overweight

rheumatoid arthritis:
- chronic inflammation
- T-cells + cytokines –> scar tissue in synovial membrane –> bone/joints destroyed

gout:
- uric acid in joints, big toe
- symptoms: pain, swelling

94
Q
  1. dermatology
A

acne vulgaris: sebaceous glands

eczema: hypersensitivity, atopic/allergic/seborrheic

psoriasis: thick scalp, sunlight/steroid cream

benign lesions: squamous cell papilloma, seborrheic keratosis

pre-malignant: xeroderma pigmentosum, solar keratosis, intraepidermal carcinoma

malignant: basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, malignant melanoma

95
Q
  1. SIRS
A

sepsis:
- response to infection
- septic shock
- can damage organ systems

treatment: antibiotics + fluids

SIRS criteria (min. 2 of these):
- temp lower than 36, above 38
- HR over 90
- RR over 20
- WBC lower than 4, above 12g/L
- glucose above 7,7mmol/L

severe sepsis:
- between sepsis and septic shock with 1 criteria of hypoperfusion

criteria of hypoperfusion:
- consciousness
- hypoxemia less than 10kPa
- lactate above 2,5mmol/L
- oliguria less than 30ml/h

septic shock mortality - 40%

sepsis –> less blood flow + blood clot

SOFA score: 6 organ failure scores
- respiratory + neurological + cardiovascular + coagulation + hepatic + renal

4th year (7 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions