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Higher Biology > Pathology of Cardiovascular Disease > Flashcards

Pathology of Cardiovascular Disease Flashcards

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1
Q

What are some of the main processes leading to Cardiovascular disease ?

A

Atherosclerosis and Hypertension

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2
Q

What is cardiovascular disease ?

A

Cardiovascular disease is a group of diseases that affect the heart and blood vessels

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3
Q

What are examples of cardiovascular disease ?

A

Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD)
Angina
Myocardial infarction (heart attack)
Stroke

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4
Q

What is the root cause of various cardiovascular diseases ?

A

Atherosclerosis

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5
Q

What is atherosclerosis ?

A

The accumulation of fatty material beneath the endothelium of an artery resulting in the formation of an atheroma (or plaque)

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6
Q

What is an atheroma ?

A

Fatty material consisting of mainly cholesterol, fibrous material and calcium.
-As the atheroma grows, the walls of the artery thicken and lose elasticity.
-Diameter of the lumen narrows and blood flow becomes restricted.
-Results in an increased blood pressure.

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7
Q

What is a thrombus and thrombosis ?

A

A thrombus is a blood clot and thrombosis is the process by which a clot is created.

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8
Q

Describe the cascade of reactions that take place during the process of thrombosis

A

1) Atheromas rupture and damage the endothelium.
2) Results in the release of clotting factors.
3) Clotting factors convert prothrombin enzyme into its active form thrombin.
4) Thrombin turns soluble protein fibrinogen into insoluble protein fibrin threads.
5) Fibrin threads form a meshwork that clots the blood forming a thrombus.
6) Thrombus seals the wound and provides a scaffold for formation of scar tissue.

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9
Q

What is an embolus and an embolism ?

A

An embolus is a loose blood clot (thrombus) and an embolism is when an embolus gets lodged and blocked a blood vessel.

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10
Q

How does an atheroma lead to the formation of a blood clot or thrombus ?

A

-An atheroma may rupture and damage the endothelium which results in the release of clotting factors.
-Clotting factors activates a cascade of reaction that lead to the formation of a blood clot or thrombus.

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11
Q

Explain how a thrombosis could effect the tissues of the body

A

In some cases, a thrombus may break loose, forming an embolus.
1) Embolus travels through the bloodstream and block a blood vessel.
2) Deprives cells of oxygen and leads to the death of tissues.
-If this blockage occurs in the coronary artery, leads to a myocardial infarction.
-If this blockage occurs in an artery of the brain, leads to a stroke.

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12
Q

What are peripheral arteries ?

A

Peripheral arteries are arteries not connected to the heart or brain.

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13
Q

What is peripheral vascular disease (PVD) ?

A

-Narrowing of the arteries, due to atherosclerosis, that are not connected to the heart or brain.
-Arteries to the legs are most commonly affected.
-Pain is experienced in the leg muscles due to a limited supply of oxygen.

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14
Q

What is DVT

A

Deep Vein Thrombosis (a type of PVD)
-Formation of a thrombus in a deep vein of the leg.
-Thrombus may break off and result in a pulmonary embolism in the lungs (leads to chest pain, difficulty breathing, sudden death)

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15
Q

Describe the role of cholesterol within cells

A

-Required as a structural component of the cell membrane
-Required to synthesize sex hormones testosterone, oestrogen and progesterone.

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16
Q

Where in the body is cholesterol synthesized

A

-Cholesterol is a lipid molecule synthesized by all human cells.
-25% of total cholesterol production takes place in the liver.

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17
Q

What are lipoproteins ?

A

Lipoproteins are carrier proteins found in the blood plasma - their role is to carry cholesterol and other lipids around the body.
There are two types High Density Lipoproteins (HDLs) and Low Density Lipoproteins (LDLs)

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18
Q

Describe role of High Density Lipoproteins in transporting cholesterol around the body.

A

-Transport excess cholesterol from the body cells to the liver for elimination.
-Prevents the accumulation of cholesterol in the blood.
- HDL molecules reduce the risk of atherosclerosis.

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19
Q

Describe role of Low Density Lipoproteins in transporting cholesterol around the body.

A

-Transport cholesterol from the liver to the body cells for use within the cell.
-Circulation of LDL in the blood may cause cholesterol to be deposited in the arteries forming atheromas.
-LDL molecules increase the risk of atherosclerosis.

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20
Q

Describe how the uptake of cholesterol by body cells is regulated.

A

-Most body cells have LDL receptors on the surface of their cell membranes.
-These receptors allow cells to take in LDL where it releases cholesterol.
-Once a cell has sufficient cholesterol, a negative feedback system inhibits the synthesis of new LDL receptors preventing further uptake of cholesterol.
-LDL circulates in the blood where it may deposit cholesterol in the arteries forming atheromas.

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21
Q

Why is having a higher HDL:LDL ratio important for our health ?

A

1) Reduces blood cholesterol levels
2) Reduces risk of atherosclerosis

22
Q

How could you increase your HDL levels ?

A
  1. Follow a diet low in saturated fats
  2. Perform regular physical activity
23
Q

Describe how drugs such as statins reduce cholesterol levels ?

A

Statins reduce blood cholesterol levels by inhibiting the synthesis of cholesterol by Liver cells

24
Q

Compare the glucose concentrations of the plasma of normal people with that of someone with untreated diabetes

A

Normal = 5mmol/L

Untreated diabetes = 10 - as high as 30mmol/L

25
Q

What is macrovascular disease ?

A

Chronic elevation of blood glucose leads to the endothelial cells taking in more glucose than normal, damaging the blood vessels.
Damage to the blood vessels may cause atherosclerosis to develop which leads to CVD, stroke or peripheral vascular disease.

26
Q

Identify 3 symptoms an individual may experience as a result of microvascular disease.

A

1) Haemorrhage of blood vessels in retina
2) Renal failure
3) Peripheral nerve dysfunction

27
Q

How much glucose can the liver store ?

A

The liver can store up to 100g of glucose in the form of glycogen

28
Q

Name the two hormones released from the pancreas that help regulate blood glucose levels.

A

1) Insulin
2) Glucagon

29
Q

Describe the body reacts to decreased blood glucose levels.

A

1) Pancreatic receptors respond to decreased blood glucose levels

2) Pancreas increases secretion of Glucagon

3) Glucagon activates the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the Liver

4) Allows blood glucose levels to increase and return to normal

30
Q

Describe the body reacts to increased blood glucose levels.

A

1) Pancreatic receptors respond to increased blood glucose levels

2) Pancreas increases secretion of Insulin

3) Insulin activates the conversion of glucose to glycogen in the Liver

4) Allows blood glucose levels to decrease and return to normal

31
Q

Why do our body cells need glucose?

A

For the process of cellular respiration

32
Q

Describe the role of the adrenal gland during and after exercise

A

During exercise and flight or flight responses, the adrenal glands release a hormone called adrenaline
Adrenaline increases blood glucose concentrations by:
2) Stimulating glucagon secretions.
2) Inhibiting insulin secretions.

33
Q

What are the two types of diabetes ?

A

Type 1 and Type 2

34
Q

What are differences between type 1 and type 2 diabetes

A

Stage of life when the condition first occurs:
Type 1 = child hood
Type 2 = adulthood, risk increased by being overweight or obese

Ability of pancreatic cells to produce insulin:
Type 1 = absent
Type 2 = present, Liver cells less receptive to insulin’s action as lower number of insulin receptors

Treatment:
Type 1 = Regular doses on insulin
Type 2 = Exercise and diet control

35
Q

Name the disease that impacts the body’s ability to control its blood glucose levels.

A

Diabetes

36
Q

Identify the characteristic associated with type 2 diabetes

A

-Typically develops later in life (adulthood)
-Risk increased by being overweight
-Individuals able to produce Insulin but their cells are less sensitive to it, linked to decreased number of insulin receptors in the Liver
-Leads to failure to convert glucose to glycogen

37
Q

Identify the characteristics associated with Type 1 diabetes.

A

-Usually occurs in childhood
-Individuals unable to produce Insulin
-Treated with regular doses of Insulin

38
Q

What are problems with both types of diabetes

A

-Blood glucose concentrations will rise rapidly after a meal in both types (kidneys will remove some of this glucose, leading to glucose appearing in urine)

39
Q

What test could be used to indicate if a person suffers from diabetes?

A

The appearance of glucose in urine

40
Q

How do the results of a glucose tolerance test identify if an individual diabetic?

A

A diabetic’s blood glucose level starts at a higher level, increases to a much higher level and takes longer to return to its starting concentration compared, to a non-diabetic

41
Q

Describe how a glucose tolerance test is used to diagnose an individual with diabetes.

A

-Blood glucose concentration of the individual are initially measured after fasting
-The individual then drinks a glucose solution
-Changes in their blood glucose concentration are measured for at least two hours

42
Q

What is glucose tolerance and a glucose tolerance test ?

A

Glucose tolerance is the capacity of the body to cope with ingested glucose by produce correct levels of insulin.
A glucose tolerance test is a test used to diagnose an individual with diabetes.

43
Q

What is obesity

A

Characterised by excess body fat in relation to lean tissue such as muscle.
-Is linked to high fat diets and a decrease in physical activity.

44
Q

How might obesity impair our health?

A

1) Major risk factor for CVD
2) Major risk factor for Type 2 Diabetes

45
Q

How could an individual change their activity to reduce levels of obesity?

A

Physical activity increases energy expenditure and preserves lean tissue such as muscle
- Helps to reduce risk of CVD by keeping weight under control, minimising stress, reducing hypertension and improving blood lipid profiles

46
Q

How could an individual change their diet to reduce levels of obesity?

A

1) Energy intake in the diet should limit fats since they have a high calorific value per gram

2) Energy intake in the in the diet should limit free sugars since they require no metabolic energy to be
expended in their digestion

47
Q

What is BMI

A

Body Mass Index, a calculation based on the idea that every person has an ideal body mass.
-Commonly used to measure obesity but it can wrongly classify muscular individuals as obese.

48
Q

How do you calculate an individual’s BMI?

A

BMI Formula: BMI=weight(kg)/height(m)2

49
Q

Which BMI value would classify an individual as obese?

A

A BMI value of 30 or above

50
Q

Why might a BMI calculation wrongly classify a muscular individual as obese?

A

BMI calculations do not differentiate between levels of fat and lean body tissue such as muscle.

Higher Biology (15 decks)

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