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Higher Biology > Neurobiology > Flashcards

Neurobiology Flashcards

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1
Q

/What are the two main divisions of the nervous system ?

A

The Central and the peripheral nervous system (CNS&PNS)

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2
Q

What are the two main divisions of the Central nervous system ?

A

The brain and spinal cord

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3
Q

What are the two main divisions of the peripheral nervous system ?

A

Autonomic and somatic nervous system

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4
Q

What are the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system ?

A

Sympathetic and parasympathetic systems

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5
Q

What is the role of the nervous system ?

A

To detect and respond to changes in stimuli

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6
Q

What is the role of the somatic nervous system ?

A

-Works under conscious control
-Controls the movement of skeletal muscles
-Contains sensory and motor neurons

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7
Q

What is the role of the autonomic nervous system ?

A

-Works automatically, without conscious control.
-Controls heart rate, breathing rate and digestive processes (peristalsis and intestinal secretions)
-Consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

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8
Q

What is the role of the sympathetic nervous system ?

A

-Regulates fight or flight responses.
-Releases neurotransmitter noradrenaline

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9
Q

What is the role of the parasympathetic nervous system ?

A

-Regulates rest and digest responses
-Releases neurotransmitter acetylcholine

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10
Q

How is the activity of the autonomic nervous system regulated ?

A

Regulated by medulla using negative feedback control.

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11
Q

What affect do the neurotransmitters noradrenaline and acetylcholine have on heart rate, breathing rate, peristalsis and intestinal secretions (antagonistic action)

A

Noradrenaline increases heart and breathing rate, and decreases peristalsis and intestinal secretions.

Acetylcholine decreases heart and breathing rate, and increases peristalsis and intestinal secretions.

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12
Q

Describe the features of a converging neural pathway.

A

-Impulses from several neurons travel to one neuron.
-Increases sensitivity to excitatory or inhibitory signals.
-Convergent neural pathways can release enough neurotransmitter molecules to reach threshold and trigger an impulse.

Example
Convergence of neurons from rods in the retina increasing sensitivity to low levels of illumination through summation.

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13
Q

Describe the features of a diverging neural pathway.

A

-Impulses from one neuron travels to several neurons.
-Impulses affect more than one destination at the same time.

Example
Divergence of motor neurons allows fine motor control of fingers.

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14
Q

Describe the features of a reverberating neural pathway.

A

-Neurons later in the pathway link with earlier neurons to send the impulse back through the pathway.
-Allows repeated stimulation of the pathway.

Example
Useful for repetitive activities such as breathing.

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15
Q

What are the three regions of the brain ?

A

Cerebral cortex, medulla and cerebellum

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16
Q

What are the functions of the cerebral cortex ?

A

-Centre of conscious thought
-Recalls memories
-Alters behaviour in light of experience

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17
Q

State the function of each localised area of the cerebral cortex

A

There is localisation of brain functions in the cerebral cortex.

Sensory areas -receive information as sensory impulses from the body.
Association areas - Analyse and interpret sensory impulses and decide how best to respond.
Motor areas - Send information as motor impulses to effector organs.

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18
Q

Identify four different characteristics that are lined to the association areas of the brain

A

1) Language processing
2) Personality
3) Imagination
4) Intelligence

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19
Q

Describe how the ability of a split-brain patient to communicate what they see is different to a normal individual.

A

They can say what is viewed in their right field of vision but no what is viewed in their left field of vision.

(The left cerebral hemisphere deals with information from the right visual field and controls the right side of the body and vice versa.)

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20
Q

What is a split-brain patient?

A

An individual whose corpus callosum has been cut - cannot transfer information between the two cerebral hemispheres.

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21
Q

What is the corpus callosum ?

A

A bundle of nerve fibres that allow the transfer of information between the two cerebral hemispheres.

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22
Q

Which localised area is found only in the left cerebral hemisphere?

A

The speech motor area

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23
Q

Describe how information is processed within the cerebral cortex

A

Information from one side of the body is processed in the opposite side of the cerebrum

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24
Q

What are the three levels of memory ?

A

1) Sensory memory
2) Short-term memory (STM)
3) Long-term memory (LTM)

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25
Q

Describe the three stages involved in memorising information

A

Memory involves encoding, storage and retrieval of information, and includes past experiences, knowledge and thoughts.

Encoding - Information converted into a form that the brain and process and store.

Storage - Encoded information is retained over a period of time.

Retrieval - Stored information is recovered from memory.

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26
Q

Describe the features of our sensory memory

A

-Stores all visual and auditory information received by the brain.
-Information is stored for a few seconds.
-Selected images and sounds are encoded into the STM, the rest of the information is discarded.

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27
Q

What path does information pass through to become a memory ?

A

All information entering the brain passes through sensory memory and enters short-term memory (STM). Information is then either transferred to long-term memory (LTM) or is discarded.

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28
Q

Describe the features of out short-term memory (STM)

A

-Limited capacity
-Memory span of 7+/-2 items.
-Information is stored for a short time (about 30 seconds)
-Information is transferred to LTM or lost by displacement.

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29
Q

Describe how rehearsal can improve our short-term memory (STM)

A

-Shallow form of encoding.
-Involves repeating information over and over again.
-Increases the length of time information is stored in our STM.
-Facilitates the transfer of information from STM to LTM.

30
Q

Describe how chunking can improve our short-term memory (STM)

A

-Involves grouping information into smaller, meaningful units that are easier to remember.
-Improves the memory span (capacity) of our STM.

31
Q

Why is the short-term memory (STM) also known as the working memory ?

A

-STM is able to actively process information and data as well as store it.
-Allows the STM to perform simple cognitive tasks.

32
Q

Describe the serial position effect

A

Describes a person’s tendency to remember objects from a list.

Primacy effect - Objects at the start of the list have been rehearsed within the STM and are more likely to be transferred to the LTM.

Recency effect - Objects at the end of the list are still stored within the STM and easily recalled.

33
Q

Describe the features of long-term memory (LTM)

A

-Unlimited capacity.
-Information is stored for a long time.

34
Q

State two wats in which information can be lost from our memory

A

1) Displacement of information - old information is pushed out by new incoming information.
2) Decay - the breakdown of a fragile memory circuit.

35
Q

State three ways in which information can be transferred from STM to LTM

A

1) Rehearsal
2) Organisation
3) Elaboration

36
Q

Describe how organisation facilitates the transfer of information from STM to LTM

A

-Arranges information into a logical manner that is easier to remember.
-Increases the chance of information being successfully encoded and transferred from STM to LTM.

37
Q

Describe how elaboration facilitates the transfer of information from STM to LTM

A

· Deeper form of encoding

· Addition of further information to help create meaning to the item you wish to memorise

· Increases chance of information being successfully encoded and transferred from STM to LTM

38
Q

How is information retrieved from LTM?

A

-Retrieval is aided by the use of contextual cues.
-Contextual cues relate to the time and place when the information was initially encoded into LTM.

39
Q

State the function of each type of neuron

A

Sensory Neurons - Carry impulses from the sense organs to the CNS

Inter Neurons - Carry impulses from the sensory neurons across the CNS to the motor neuron.

Motor Neuron - Carry impulses from the CNS to muscles and glands.

40
Q

What are the main structures of a neuron ?

A

Dendrites, Cell Body, Axons, Myelin Sheath

41
Q

In which direction does an electrical impulse travel along the length of a neuron ?

A

Dendrite —> Cell Body —> Axon

42
Q

State the function of the myelin sheath ?

A

Axons are surrounded by a myelin sheath which:
-Insulates the axon.
-Increases the speed of impulse transmission.

43
Q

State the function of glial cells.

A

-Provide support to neurons.
-Responsible for producing myelin sheaths.
-Do not transmit electrical impulses

44
Q

Describe the process of myelination

A

-Formation of a myelin sheath around the axon of a neuron.
-This process continues from birth to adolescence.
-Allows responses to stimuli to become more rapid and coordinated

(This is why responses to stimuli in the first two years of life are not as rapid or co-ordinated as those of an older child or adult.)

45
Q

How do some diseases cause nervous deterioration ?

A

Certain diseases destroy the myelin sheath causing a loss of co-ordination.

46
Q

What is a synapse ?

A

A small gap where two neurons meet

-Synapses can filter out weak stimuli arising from insufficient secretion of neurotransmitters.

47
Q

What structures can be found at the synapse ?

A

Pre-synaptic neuron, synaptic cleft and the post-synaptic neuron.

(Neurons connect with other neurons or muscle fibres at a synaptic cleft. )

48
Q

What is a neurotransmitter

A

A chemical messenger used to relay impulses across the synaptic cleft

49
Q

Where are neurotransmitters stored ?

A

Stores inside vesicles in the axon endings of the pre-synaptic neuron

50
Q

Why is it important that neurotransmitters are removed from the synaptic cleft ?

A

To prevent continuous continuous stimulation of postsynaptic neurons.

51
Q

State the two ways in which neurotransmitters are removed from the synaptic cleft

A

1) Enzyme degradation (acetylcholine)
2) Re-uptake (noradrenaline)

52
Q

Define the term summation

A

A series of weak stimuli can accumulatively release enough neurotransmitter to reach threshold and transmit an impulse

53
Q

Define the term threshold

A

A minimum number of neurotransmitter molecules must attach to receptors to transmit an impulse in the post-synaptic neuron.

54
Q

How does the chemical transmission of signals take place at the synapse ?

A

1) An electrical impulse travels along the axon of the pre-synaptic neuron.
2) Arrival of an impulse at the synaptic terminal stimulates vesicles containing neurotransmitters to fuse with the membrane.
3) Neurotransmitters are released by exocytosis and diffuse across the synaptic cleft.
4) Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the membrane of the post-synaptic neuron.
5) Receptors determine whether the signal received is excitatory or inhibitory.

55
Q

Describe the role of endorphins

A

Endorphins are neurotransmitters that stimulate neurons involved in reducing the intensity of pain (act as natural pain killers)

56
Q

Identify four responses that would cause endorphins production to increase

A

1) severe injury
2) prolonged and continuous exercise
3) stress
4) certain foods

57
Q

Identify three pleasurable activities that would cause endorphin production to increase

A

1) eating
2) sex
3) prolonged exercise

58
Q

Describe the role of dopamine

A

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that:
-induces feelings of pleasure
-reinforces particular behaviour by activating the reward pathway in the brain

59
Q

What is the reward pathway

A

The reward pathway involves neurons which secrete or respond to dopamine.

60
Q

State how the reward pathway becomes activated

A

The reward pathway is activated when an individual engages in a behaviour that is beneficial to them

for example:
-eating when hungry
-Drinking when thirsty

61
Q

Describe how other drugs are used to treat neurotransmitter related disorders

A

-Act by inhibiting the enzymes that degrade neurotransmitters (causing an enhanced effect)
-Act by inhibiting the reuptake of neurotransmitters (causing an enhanced effect)
-

62
Q

Many drugs used to treat neurotransmitter related disorders are agonists or antagonists.

Describe how drugs that act as agonists are used to treat neurotransmitter related disorders

A

-Agonists are chemicals that bind to and stimulate specific receptors
-Mimic the action of a neurotransmitter at a synapse.

63
Q

Many drugs used to treat neurotransmitter related disorders are agonists or antagonists.

Describe how drugs that act as antagonists are used to treat neurotransmitter related disorders

A

-Antagonists are chemicals that bind to specific receptors
-Blocks the action of a neurotransmitter at a synapse.

64
Q

What are recreational drugs ?

A

-Drugs used without medical supervision or consent
-Acts as agonists or antagonists
-Affect neurotransmission at synapses in the brain, altering an individual’s mood, cognition, perception and behaviour.
-Many recreational drugs affect neurotransmission in the reward pathway of the brain.

65
Q

How can neurochemical changes caused by recreational drug use affect an individual ?

A

Altering an individual’s:
1) mood
2) cognition
3) perception
4) behaviour

66
Q

Which area of the brain are many recreational drugs known to affect ?

A

-Many affect neurotransmission in the reward pathway
-Increases feelings of pleasure
-Leads to repeated use

67
Q

The repeated use of which type of drugs leads to drug addiction ?

A

Drugs that act as antagonists

68
Q

The repeated use of which type of drugs leads to drug tolerance ?

A

Drugs that act as agonists

69
Q

What do memories include ?

A

Past experiences, knowledge and thoughts.

70
Q

How does drug addiction develop ?

A

-Antagonists block specific receptors causing the nervous system to increase both the number and sensitivity of these receptors.
-This sensitisation leads to addiction where the individual craves more of the drug.

71
Q

How does drug tolerance develop ?

A

-Agonists stimulate specific receptors causing the nervous system to decrease both the number and sensitivity of these receptors.
-This desensitisation leads to drug tolerance where the individual must take more of the drug to get an effect.

Higher Biology (15 decks)

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