Pathology

Question 1

What is hyperplasia?

Answer 1

Enlargement due to increase in cell number

Question 2

What is hypertrophy?

Answer 2

Enlargement due to increase in cell size

Question 3

What is hypoplasia?

Answer 3

Reduction in seize of an organ that never fully developed to normal size (Irreversible)

Question 4

What is atrophy?

Answer 4

Reduction in size of an organ due to decreased cell size and number

Question 5

What is a neoplasm?

Answer 5

Abnormal mass of tissue

Question 6

What is metaplasia?

Answer 6

Altered differentiation- a mature cell type transforms into another cell type

Question 7

What is barrett’s oesophagus an example of?

Answer 7

A metaplastic change.

Squamous epithelium is replaced by glandular epithelium

Question 8

What is dysplasia?

Answer 8

Pre-malignant process that involves cell growth without a stimulus

Question 9

What is angiogenesis?

Answer 9

Formation of new blood vessels

Question 10

What is senescence?

Answer 10

Deterioration of function of cells

Question 11

What is necrosis?

Answer 11

Premature cell death (pathological)

Question 12

What is apoptosis?

Answer 12

Programmed cell death

e.g. in AIDS patients/reperfusion injury

Question 13

What is suppuration?

Answer 13

formation of pus

Question 14

What cells does pus consist of?

Answer 14

Living cells, dying cells, dead neutrophils, bacteria and debris

Question 15

What are stable cells?

Answer 15

Cells that only multiply after a stimulus e.g. hepatocytes

Question 16

What are labile cells?

Answer 16

Cells that multiply continually, e.g. surface epithelium, cancer cells

Question 17

What are permanent cells?

Answer 17

cells that cannot multiply any further, e.g. neurones

Question 18

What do oncogenes do?

Give some examples of oncogenes

Answer 18

Stimulate cell division 
Ras
Src
PDGF
HER2
EGFR

Question 19

What do tumour suppressor genes do?

Give some examples

Answer 19

p53
PTEN
BRCA-1
APC

Question 20

What is the function of FAS ligand (CD95)?

Answer 20

It binds with receptor to induce apoptosis

extrinsic pathway

Question 21

What is Bcl2?

Answer 21

An anti-apoptotic molecule found in mitochondrial membrane

Question 22

Which pro-apoptotic molecules replace Bcl2 to induce apoptosis?

Answer 22

Bak, Bax

Question 23

Which proteins regulate angiogenesis?

Answer 23

PDGF, EGFR, TNF

Question 24

Which mutations are associated with breast cancer?

Answer 24

BRCA

HER2

Question 25

Which mutations are associated with lung cancer?

Answer 25

EGFR | Kras

Question 26

An EGFR mutation + a mutation in which gene makes EGFR specific drugs ineffective?

Answer 26

Kras

Question 27

Which gene is mutated in FAP?

Answer 27

APC

Question 28

Which gene is mutated in Cowden's syndrome?

Answer 28

PTEN

Question 29

Which gene is mutated in gorlins syndrome?

Answer 29

PTCH

Question 30

What might malignant cells look like histologically?

Answer 30

Irregular High N:C ratio - lots of cells Lots of different shapes + sizes (pleomorphism) Lots more dark colour (hyperchromasia)

Question 31

What is a benign squamous epithelial tumour called? | What is a malignant squamous epithelial tumour called?

Answer 31

Squamous papilloma | Squamous carcinoma

Question 32

What is a benign glandular tumour called? What is a malignant glandular tumour called?

Answer 32

Adenoma | Adenocarcinoma

Question 33

How do malignant tumours arising from mesenchymal tissue end?

Answer 33

'sarcoma' e.g. fat tumour - liposarcoma Endothelium- angiosarcoma

Question 34

Outline Duke staging

Answer 34

Stage A- confined to wall Stage B- penetrates wall Stage C- lymph node metastases Stage D- metastatic disease

Question 35

When does coagulative necrosis commonly occur?

Answer 35

Post MI | Cell outline preserved + scarring

Question 36

When does liquefactive necrosis commonly occur?

Answer 36

In the brain, e.g after a stroke | No cell structure remains, pus formation + no scarring

Question 37

What condition does caseous necrosis commonly occur in?

Answer 37

TB

Question 38

Where is fibrinoid necrosis found?

Answer 38

Walls of blood vessels, most common in the liver

Question 39

What are the signs of acute inflammation?

Answer 39

``` Rubor (redness) Calor (heat) Tumor (swelling) Dolor- (pain) Loss of function ```

Question 40

What causes the redness and heat observed in acute inflammation?

Answer 40

Vasodilation - increased blood flow + skin temperature

Question 41

What are the protein components of the oedema in acute inflammation?

Answer 41

Immunoglobulins and fibrinogen

Question 42

Which cells release histamine? | What are the effects?

Answer 42

Mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, platelets | Vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, bronchoconstriction

Question 43

Which cells release serotonin? What are the effects?

Answer 43

Mast cells, platelets | Vasodilation, increased vascular permeability

Question 44

What is the function of chemokines? Which cells release them?

Answer 44

Attract leukocytes to the site of inflammation by chemotaxis Body cells

Question 45

What properties do leukotrienes have? which cells release them?

Answer 45

Vasoactive properties | Neutrophils

Question 46

Which cells release prostaglandins? Where are the effects?

Answer 46

Mast cells increase vascular permeability Stimulate platelet aggregation

Question 47

Which cell is first recruited to the site of infection/inflammation?

Answer 47

Neutrophils

Question 48

Which adhesion molecules control the migration of neutrophils into cells?

Answer 48

ICAM | PECAM1

Question 49

How is expression of adhesion molecules increased?

Answer 49

IL-1 Endotoxins TNF

Question 50

What cells are histologically associated with chronic inflammation?

Answer 50

Lymphocytes Macrophage Plasma cells

Question 51

What is granulation tissue?

Answer 51

Replacement of damaged tissue by angiogenesis, fibroblast proliferation + collagen synthesis - forms granulation tissue + scarring

Question 52

What is formation of granulation tissue regulated by?

Answer 52

Growth factors, e.g. TNF, EGF

Question 53

What cells is a granuloma primarily made of?

Answer 53

Macrophage

Question 54

What is regeneration?

Answer 54

Restitution with no or minimal residual defect (cannot be seen by the naked eye)

Question 55

What is repair?

Answer 55

formation of granulation tissue + scarring - necessary when tissue is lost

Question 56

What is an example of first intention repair where there is minimal granulation tissue + scarring?

Answer 56

Surgical scar

Question 57

What is an example of second intention repair where there is predominant granulation tissue + scarring?

Answer 57

Ulcerated scar

Question 58

What is the initiating factor in atherosclerosis?

Answer 58

endothelial injury

Question 59

Which molecule becomes oxidised in atherosclerosis formation?

Answer 59

LDL

Question 60

What are foam cells?

Answer 60

Macrophage which have absorbed oxidised LDL - seen as a fatty streak

Question 61

Which cells proliferate in response to cytokines to produce a fibrous cap over atherosclerotic plaque?

Answer 61

Smooth muscle cells

Question 62

Smooth muscle cells deposit which substance over the atherosclerotic plaque?

Answer 62

Collagen