Pathology Flashcards
What is hyperplasia?
Enlargement due to increase in cell number
What is hypertrophy?
Enlargement due to increase in cell size
What is hypoplasia?
Reduction in seize of an organ that never fully developed to normal size (Irreversible)
What is atrophy?
Reduction in size of an organ due to decreased cell size and number
What is a neoplasm?
Abnormal mass of tissue
What is metaplasia?
Altered differentiation- a mature cell type transforms into another cell type
What is barrett’s oesophagus an example of?
A metaplastic change.
Squamous epithelium is replaced by glandular epithelium
What is dysplasia?
Pre-malignant process that involves cell growth without a stimulus
What is angiogenesis?
Formation of new blood vessels
What is senescence?
Deterioration of function of cells
What is necrosis?
Premature cell death (pathological)
What is apoptosis?
Programmed cell death
e.g. in AIDS patients/reperfusion injury
What is suppuration?
formation of pus
What cells does pus consist of?
Living cells, dying cells, dead neutrophils, bacteria and debris
What are stable cells?
Cells that only multiply after a stimulus e.g. hepatocytes
What are labile cells?
Cells that multiply continually, e.g. surface epithelium, cancer cells
What are permanent cells?
cells that cannot multiply any further, e.g. neurones
What do oncogenes do?
Give some examples of oncogenes
Stimulate cell division Ras Src PDGF HER2 EGFR
What do tumour suppressor genes do?
Give some examples
p53
PTEN
BRCA-1
APC
What is the function of FAS ligand (CD95)?
It binds with receptor to induce apoptosis
extrinsic pathway
What is Bcl2?
An anti-apoptotic molecule found in mitochondrial membrane
Which pro-apoptotic molecules replace Bcl2 to induce apoptosis?
Bak, Bax
Which proteins regulate angiogenesis?
PDGF, EGFR, TNF
Which mutations are associated with breast cancer?
BRCA
HER2
Which mutations are associated with lung cancer?
EGFR
Kras
An EGFR mutation + a mutation in which gene makes EGFR specific drugs ineffective?
Kras
Which gene is mutated in FAP?
APC
Which gene is mutated in Cowden’s syndrome?
PTEN
Which gene is mutated in gorlins syndrome?
PTCH
What might malignant cells look like histologically?
Irregular
High N:C ratio - lots of cells
Lots of different shapes + sizes (pleomorphism)
Lots more dark colour (hyperchromasia)
What is a benign squamous epithelial tumour called?
What is a malignant squamous epithelial tumour called?
Squamous papilloma
Squamous carcinoma
What is a benign glandular tumour called? What is a malignant glandular tumour called?
Adenoma
Adenocarcinoma
How do malignant tumours arising from mesenchymal tissue end?
‘sarcoma’
e.g. fat tumour - liposarcoma
Endothelium- angiosarcoma
Outline Duke staging
Stage A- confined to wall
Stage B- penetrates wall
Stage C- lymph node metastases
Stage D- metastatic disease
When does coagulative necrosis commonly occur?
Post MI
Cell outline preserved + scarring
When does liquefactive necrosis commonly occur?
In the brain, e.g after a stroke
No cell structure remains, pus formation + no scarring
What condition does caseous necrosis commonly occur in?
TB
Where is fibrinoid necrosis found?
Walls of blood vessels, most common in the liver
What are the signs of acute inflammation?
Rubor (redness) Calor (heat) Tumor (swelling) Dolor- (pain) Loss of function
What causes the redness and heat observed in acute inflammation?
Vasodilation - increased blood flow + skin temperature
What are the protein components of the oedema in acute inflammation?
Immunoglobulins and fibrinogen
Which cells release histamine?
What are the effects?
Mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, platelets
Vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, bronchoconstriction
Which cells release serotonin? What are the effects?
Mast cells, platelets
Vasodilation, increased vascular permeability
What is the function of chemokines? Which cells release them?
Attract leukocytes to the site of inflammation by chemotaxis
Body cells
What properties do leukotrienes have? which cells release them?
Vasoactive properties
Neutrophils
Which cells release prostaglandins? Where are the effects?
Mast cells
increase vascular permeability
Stimulate platelet aggregation
Which cell is first recruited to the site of infection/inflammation?
Neutrophils
Which adhesion molecules control the migration of neutrophils into cells?
ICAM
PECAM1
How is expression of adhesion molecules increased?
IL-1
Endotoxins
TNF
What cells are histologically associated with chronic inflammation?
Lymphocytes
Macrophage
Plasma cells
What is granulation tissue?
Replacement of damaged tissue by angiogenesis, fibroblast proliferation + collagen synthesis - forms granulation tissue + scarring
What is formation of granulation tissue regulated by?
Growth factors, e.g. TNF, EGF
What cells is a granuloma primarily made of?
Macrophage
What is regeneration?
Restitution with no or minimal residual defect (cannot be seen by the naked eye)
What is repair?
formation of granulation tissue + scarring - necessary when tissue is lost
What is an example of first intention repair where there is minimal granulation tissue + scarring?
Surgical scar
What is an example of second intention repair where there is predominant granulation tissue + scarring?
Ulcerated scar
What is the initiating factor in atherosclerosis?
endothelial injury
Which molecule becomes oxidised in atherosclerosis formation?
LDL
What are foam cells?
Macrophage which have absorbed oxidised LDL - seen as a fatty streak
Which cells proliferate in response to cytokines to produce a fibrous cap over atherosclerotic plaque?
Smooth muscle cells
Smooth muscle cells deposit which substance over the atherosclerotic plaque?
Collagen
