Patho Exam 1 Flashcards
Largest membrane bound organelle
Nucleus
Nucleus function
cell division and control of genetic information
What does the nucleus contains that is a small dense structure composed largely of RNA, most of the cellular DNA, and the DNA-binding proteins, such as the histones, which regulate its activity.
Nucleolus
What is the RNA function
direct cellular activity
Where does RNA processing occur
The Nucleus
Most of a cell’s genetic information, including RNA and DNA, is contained in the
Nucleus
During which phase of the cell cycle is DNA synthesized?
S phase
What does DNA contain?
Genetic information
What are the major chemical components of the cell membranes?
Lipids and proteins
RNA protein complexes synthesized in the nucleus and secreted into the cytoplasm through pores in the nucleus envelope
Ribosome
What is the Ribosome function?
provide sites for cellular protein synthesis
Which organelle produce a “recognition sequence” or signal like an address on a letter ?
newly produced Ribosome
What is the mechanism by which the energy produced from carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids is transferred to adenosine triphosphate (ATP)?
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Where does Oxidative phosphorylation occurs ?
Mitochondria
What cell component originates from the Golgi complex, provides energy to digest proteins into amino acids, functions as the intracellular digestive system, and are capable of digesting most cellular constituents down to their basic forms, such as amino acids, fatty acids, and sugars.
Lysosomes
Which cell component is capable of cellular autodigestion when it is released during cell injury?
Lysosome
The cellular uptake of the nutrient cholesterol depends on which process?
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Which structure prevents water-soluble molecules from entering cells across the plasma membrane?
Lipid bilayer
Passive transport is best described with which statement?
Being driven by osmosis, hydrostatic pressure, and diffusion
Which form of cell communication is used to communicate within the cell itself and with other cells in direct physical contact?
Protein channel (gap junction)
What is the primary function of proteins? (4)
Proteins are binding units.
Proteins are transport channels.
Proteins provide cell surface markers.
Proteins are chemical reaction catalysts.
What are glycoproteins?
membrane bound proteins that are cell surface markers
Passive transport is dependent on what 4 things ?
semipermeable membrane
osmosis
hydrostatic pressure
diffusion
Active transport occurs across which type of membranes? (what does it require?)
Membranes that have receptors that are capable of binding with the substances to be transported
The transport of glucose from the blood to the cell is accomplished by which process?
Passive-mediated transport (facilitated dissuison)
Under anaerobic conditions, what process provides energy for the cell?
Glycoloysis
A patient who has diarrhea receives a 3% saline solution intravenously to replace the sodium and chloride lost in the stool. What effect will this fluid replacement have on cells?
shrink
When changes in total body water are accompanied by proportional changes in electrolytes, what type of alteration occurs?
Isotonic
Water movement between the intracellular fluid (ICF) compartment and the extracellular fluid (ECF) compartment is primarily a function of:
Osmosis
In addition to osmosis, what force is involved in the movement of water between the plasma and interstitial fluid spaces?
Hydrostatic pressure
The role of cytokines in cell reproduction is that they:
Provide growth factor for tissue growth and development.
Potassium and sodium are transported across plasma membranes by:
Adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) enzyme
Why is it possible for potassium to diffuse easily into and out of cells?
The resting plasma membrane is more permeable to potassium
What causes the rapid change in the resting membrane potential to initiate an action potential?
Sodium gates open, and sodium rushes into the cell, changing the membrane potential from negative to positive.
In hypoxic injury, sodium enters the cell and causes swelling because:
ATP is insufficient to maintain the pump that keeps sodium out of the cell.
During cell injury caused by hypoxia, sodium and water move into the cell because:
The pump that transports sodium out of the cell cannot function because of a decrease in ATP levels.
Removal of part of the liver leads to the remaining liver cells undergoing compensatory:
Hyperplasia
What is an example of compensatory hyperplasia?
Hepatic cells increase cell division after part of the liver is excised.
Examples of adaptive cellular responses include: (4)
Atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, and metaplasia
After ovulation, the uterine endometrial cells divide under the influence of estrogen. This process is an example of hormonal:
Hyperplasia
It is true that nondividing cells are:
Found in gastrointestinal lining
The abnormal proliferation of cells in response to excessive hormonal stimulation is called:
Pathological Hyperplasia
Which type of cell adaptation occurs when normal columnar ciliated epithelial cells of the bronchial lining have been replaced by stratified squamous epithelial cells?
Metaplasia
The mammary glands enlarge during pregnancy primarily as a consequence of hormonal:
Hyperplasia
Modification in the shape of a specific cell type
Dysplasia
Which organs are affected by lead consumption?
Bones and Nerves
Lead causes damage within the cell by interfering with the action of:
Calcium
Lead poisoning affects the nervous system by:
Interfering with the function of neurotransmitters
Infants are most susceptible to significant losses in total body water because of an infant’s:
Kidneys are not mature enough to counter fluid losses
Obesity creates a greater risk for dehydration in people because:
Adipose cells contain little water because fat is water repelling.
When changes in total body water are accompanied by proportional changes in electrolytes, what type of alteration occurs?
Isotonic
Which groups are at risk for fluid imbalance? (3)
Infants, Obese, and older adults
Which statements regarding total body water (TBW) are true? (4)
- durin g childhood, TBW slowly decreases in relationship to body weight
- Men tend to have greater TBW as a result of their muscle mass.
- Estrogen plays a role in female TBW.
- Older adults experience a decrease in TBW as a result of decreased muscle mass.
Which arterial pH will initiate the formation of ammonium (NH4) from ammonia (NH3), referred to as academia, in the tubular lumen of the kidney?
7.25
A patient’s blood gases reveal the following findings: pH, 7.3; bicarbonate (HCO3) 27 mEq/L; carbon dioxide (CO2), 58 mm Hg. What is the interpretation of these gases?
Respiratory Acidosis
During acidosis, the body compensates for the increase in serum hydrogen ions by shifting hydrogen ions into the cell in exchange for which electrolyte?
Potassium
It is true that Kussmaul respirations indicate:
A compensatory measure is needed to correct metabolic acidosis.
In addition to osmosis, what force is involved in the movement of water between the plasma and interstitial fluid spaces?
Hydrostatic pressure
Venous obstruction is a cause of edema because of an increase in which pressure?
Capillary hydrostatic
At the arterial end of capillaries, fluid moves from the intravascular space into the interstitial space because the:
Capillary hydrostatic pressure is higher than the capillary oncotic pressure.
Low plasma albumin causes edema as a result of a reduction in which pressure?
Plasma oncotic
The pathophysiologic process of edema is related to which mechanism?
Lymphatic obstruction
Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure results in edema because of:
Sodium and water retention
Water movement between the intracellular fluid (ICF) compartment and the extracellular fluid (ECF) compartment is primarily a function of:
Osmotic forces
Two thirds of the body’s water is found in its:
Intracellular fluid compartments
Which enzyme is secreted by the juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney when circulating blood volume is reduced?
Renin
What mechanism can cause hypernatremia?
Hypersecretion of aldosterone
What causes the clinical manifestations of confusion, convulsions, cerebral hemorrhage, and coma in hypernatremia?
High sodium in the blood vessels pulls water out of the brain cells into the blood vessels, causing brain cells to shrink.
The electrolyte imbalance called hyponatremia exhibits which clinical manifestations? (4)
Headache, Seizures, Confusion, Lethargy
Thirst activates osmoreceptors by an increase in which blood plasma?
Osmotic pressure
Insulin is used to treat hyperkalemia because it:
Transports potassium from the blood to the cell along with glucose.
Causes of hyperkalemia include:
Renal failure and Addison disease
Chvostek and Trousseau signs indicate which electrolyte imbalance?
Hypocalcemia
The electrolyte imbalance hypercalcemia exhibits which clinical manifestations? (3)
- calcium-based kidney stones
- lethargy
- bradycardia
The most common cause of hypermagnesemia is:
Renal failure
Which secretion is a first line of defense against pathogen invasion that involves antibacterial and antifungal fatty acids, as well as lactic acid?
Sebaceous gland sebum
Which cell is the body’s primary defense against parasite invasion?
Eosinophil
Newborns often have deficiencies in collectin-like proteins, making them more susceptible to what type of infection?
Respiratory
Which action is a purpose of the inflammatory process?
To prevent infection of the injured tissue
What causes the edema that occurs during the inflammatory process?
Increased capillary permeability
What process causes heat and redness to occur during the inflammatory process?
Vasodilation of blood vessels
What plasma protein system forms a fibrinous meshwork at an inflamed site?
Coagulation
The chemotactic factor affects the inflammatory process by:
Directing leukocytes to the inflamed area
Which manifestation of inflammation is systemic?
Fever and Leukocytosis
The acute inflammatory response is characterized by fever that is produced by the hypothalamus being affected by:
Endogenous pyrogens (aka fever causing cytokines)
Which chemical mediators induce pain during an inflammatory response? (2)
Prostaglandins and Bradykinin
Which component of the plasma protein system tags pathogenic microorganisms for destruction by neutrophils and macrophages?
Complement cascade
Which chemical interacts among all plasma protein systems by degrading blood clots, activating complement, and activating the Hageman factor?
Plasmin
The function of opsonization related to the complement cascade is to:
Tag of pathogenic microorganisms for destruction by neutrophils and macrophages.
Which cytokine is produced and released from virally infected host cells?
IFN-a
What is an outcome of the complement cascade?
Lysis of bacterial cell membranes
Which chemical mediator derived from mast cells retracts endothelial cells to increase vascular permeability and to cause leukocyte adhesion to endothelial cells?
Platelet-activating factor
In regulating vascular mediators released from mast cells, the role of eosinophils is to release:
Histaminase, which limits the effects of histamine during acute inflammation
What is the vascular effect of histamine released from mast cells?
Vasodilation
What is the correct sequence in phagocytosis?
Recognition, engulfment, fusion, destruction
During phagocytosis, what is occurring during the step referred to as opsonization?
Phagocytes recognize and adhere to the bacteria
Fusion is the step in phagocytosis during which:
Lysosomal granules enter the phagocyte.
During the process of endocytosis, the phagosome step results in:
An intracellular phagocytic vacuole is formed
What is the role of a natural killer (NK) cells?
Elimination of malignant cells
The main function of NK cells includes: (2)
- recognition of virus-infected cells
- elimination of virus-infected cells
- eliminating previously identified cancer cells
Which cytokine is needed for the maturation of a functional helper T cell?
IL-2
Cytokines are vital to a cell’s ability to do which function?
Communicate
What occurs during the process of repair after tissue damage?
Nonfunctioning scar tissue replaces destroyed tissue
Many neonates have a transient depressed inflammatory response as a result of which condition?
Complement and chemotaxis are deficient.
Which type of immunity is produced by an individual after either natural exposure to the antigen or after immunization against the antigen?
Active-acquired immunity
What type of immunity is produced when an immunoglobulin crosses the placenta?
Passive-acquired immunity
Which statement is true regarding maternal antibodies provided to the neonate?
The antibodies enter into the fetal circulation by means of active transport
Vaccinations are able to provide protection against certain microorganisms because of the:
Level of protection provided by IgG
When antigens are administered to produce immunity, why are different routes of administration considered?
Each route stimulates a different lymphocyte-containing tissue, resulting in different types of cellular and humoral immunity.
Where are antibodies produced?
Plasma cells
How do antibodies protect the host from bacterial toxins?
Binding to the toxins to neutralize their biologic effects
Evaluation of umbilical cord blood can confirm that which immunoglobulin level is near adult levels?
IgG
Which statement is true concerning the IgM?
IgM is the first antibody produced during the initial response to an antigen.
What immunoglobulin crosses the placenta
IgG
What immunoglobulin is predominately found in the blood and body secretions?
IgA
What immunoglobulin mediates many common allergic responses
IgE
Which immunoglobulin is present in blood, saliva, breast milk, and respiratory secretions?
IgA
Which antibody initially indicates a typical primary immune response?
IgM
An individual is more susceptible to infections of mucous membranes when he or she has a seriously low level of which immunoglobulin antibody?
IgA
Which cell has the ability to recognize antigens presented by the MHC class I molecules?
CD 8
Which cell has a role in developing cell-mediated immunity?
Th1
CD4 is a characteristic surface marker and a result of which of the following? (4)
- Activity in the primary lymphoid organs
- Process of cellular differentiation
- Alterations to T cells
- Clonal selection
What is the term for the process during which lymphoid stem cells migrate and change into either immunocompetent T cells or immunocompetent B cells?
Clonal diversity
The generation of clonal diversity includes a process that:
Takes place in the primary (central) lymphoid organs.
Which T cell controls or limits the immune response to protect the host’s own tissues against an autoimmune response?
Regulatory T (Treg) cells
The generation of clonal diversity occurs primarily during which phase of life?
Fetal
In which structure does B lymphocytes mature and undergo changes that commit them to becoming B cells?
Bone Marrow
Th2 cells produce IL-4 and suppress which cells?
Th1 cells
Hypersensitivity is best defined as a(an):
Altered immunologic response to an antigen that results in disease
A hypersensitivity reaction that produces an allergic response is called:
Anaphylaxis
Which type of antibody is involved in type I hypersensitivity reaction?
IgE
Blood transfusion reactions are an example of:
Alloimmunity
During an IgE-mediated hypersensitivity reaction, which leukocyte is activated?
Eosinophils
During an IgE-mediated hypersensitivity reaction, what causes bronchospasm?
Smooth muscle contraction caused by histamine bound to H1 receptors
During an IgE-mediated hypersensitivity reaction, the degranulation of mast cells is a result of which receptor action?
Histamine bound to H2
What is the mechanism that results in type II hypersensitivity reactions?
Antibodies bind to the antigens on the cell surface.
How are target cells destroyed in a type II hypersensitivity reaction?
Natural killer cells
Graves disease (hyperthyroidism) is an example of which type II hypersensitivity reaction?
Modulation
Type III hypersensitivity reactions are a result of which of the following?
Antibodies binding to soluble antigens that were released into body fluids and the immune complexes being deposited in the tissues
A type IV hypersensitivity reaction causes which result?
Lymphokine-producing Th1 cells directly attacking and destroying cellular targets
In a type III hypersensitivity reaction, the harmful effects after the immune complexes that are deposited in tissues are a result of:
Complement activation
Raynaud phenomenon is classified as a type III hypersensitivity reaction and is due to:
Immune complexes that are deposited in capillary beds, blocking circulation
Urticaria are a manifestation of a which type of hypersensitivity reaction?
Type I
Graves disease is a result of:
Autoantibodies binding to thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)-receptor sites
Raynaud phenomenon is an example of which type of hypersensitivity?
Type III
Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is associated with which type of hypersensitivity reaction?
Type I
Graves disease is an autoimmune disease that results in which maternal antibody?
Affecting the receptor for TSH, causing neonatal hyperthyroidism
Exposure to which of the following could result in a type IV hypersensitivity reaction? (4)
poison ivy, neomycin, nickel, and detergents
The common hay fever allergy is expressed through a reaction that is mediated by which class of immunoglobulins?
IgE
When mismatched blood is administered causing an ABO incompatibility, the erythrocytes are destroyed by:
Complement-mediated cell lysis
Which disorders are considered autoimmune? (4)
Crohn disease, Addison Disease, Rheumatoid arthritis, and SLE
Which statement is true regarding immunodeficiency?
Immunodeficiency is generally not present in other family members.
In which primary immune deficiency is there a partial-to-complete absence of T-cell immunity?
DiGeorge syndrome
A person with type O blood is considered to be the universal blood donor because type O blood contains which of the following?
No antigens
When antibodies are formed against red blood cell antigens of the Rh system, the blood cells are destroyed by:
Phagocytosis in the spleen
Which blood cell carries the carbohydrate antigens for blood type?
Erythrocytes
A person with type O blood is likely to have high titers of which anti-antibodies?
A and B
Phagocytosis involves neutrophils actively attacking, engulfing, and destroying which microorganisms?
Bacteria
Which statement concerning exotoxins is true?
Exotoxins are released during bacterial growth.
Some bacterial surface proteins bind with the crystalline fragment (Fc) portion of an antibody to:
Produce a protective “self” protein
Which organism is a common sexually transmitted bacterial infection?
Treponema pallidum
Cytokines are thought to cause fevers by stimulating the synthesis of which chemical mediator?
Prostaglandins
Considering the hypothalamus, a fever is produced by:
Endogenous pyrogens acting directly on the hypothalamus.
Which secretion transmits HIV? (2)
Semen & breast milk
Which statement is a characteristic of HIV?
HIV is a retrovirus.
What is the role of reverse transcriptase in HIV infection?
It converts RNA into double-stranded DNA.
After sexual transmission of HIV, a person can be infected yet seronegative for how many months?
6 to 14
Which cells are primary targets for HIV?
CD4+ Th cells, macrophages, and natural killer cells
What area in the body may act as a reservoir in which HIV can be relatively protected from antiviral drugs?
Central nervous system
HIV antibodies appear within how many weeks after infection through blood products?
4 to 7
Ability of the pathogen to invade and multiply in the host
Infectivity
Capacity of a pathogen to cause severe disease
Virulence
An important factor in determining a pathogen’s ability to produce disease by the production of a soluble toxin
Toxigenicity
Ability of an agent to produce disease
Pathogenicity
Toxigenicity is defined as the:
Pathogen’s ability to produce disease by the production of a soluble toxin
The ability of the pathogen to invade and multiply in the host is referred to as:
Infectivity
What is the most common cause of Down syndrome?
Maternal nondisjunction
What is the second most commonly recognized genetic cause of mental retardation?
Fragile X syndrome
The presence of a zygote having one chromosome with the normal complement of genes and one with a missing gene is characteristic of which genetic disorder?
Cri du chat
A child with which genetic disorder has a characteristic cry?
Cri du chat
Which clinical manifestations would be expected for a child who has complete trisomy of the twenty-first chromosome
An IQ of 25 to 70, low nasal bridge, protruding tongue, and flat, low-set ears
What syndrome, characterized by an absent homologous X chromosome with only a single X chromosome, exhibits features that include a short stature, widely spaced nipples, and webbed neck?
Turner
A person with 47, XXY karyotype has the genetic disorder resulting in which syndrome?
Klinefelter
What is the chromosomal variation that causes Klinefelter syndrome?
Nondisjunction of X chromosome in the mother
What is the risk for the recurrence of autosomal dominant diseases?
50%
Which statement is true regarding X-linked recessive conditions?
These conditions are passed from affected father to all of his female children.
Huntington disease
autosomal dominant disease
Cystic fibrosis and sickle cell
Autosomal recessive
A couple has two children diagnosed with an autosomal dominant genetic disease. What is the probability that the next child will have the same genetic disease?
one half
Cystic fibrosis is caused by what type of gene?
Autosomal recessive
Consanguinity refers to the mating of persons:
Having common family relations
Males are more often affected by which type of genetic disease?
Sex-linked recessive
When a child inherits a disease that is autosomal recessive, it is inherited from:
Both parents
Which is an important criterion for discerning autosomal recessive inheritance?
Consanguinity is sometimes present.
An X-linked recessive disease can skip generations because:
The disease can be transmitted through female carriers.
Becker muscular dystrophy and Duchenne muscular dystrophy are
X-linked recessive disorders.
The data reporting that sickle cell disease affects approximately 1 in 600 American blacks is an example of which concept?
Prevalence
The number of persons living with a specific disease at a specific point in time is referred to by which term?
Prevalence
The number of new cases of a disease reported during a specific period divided by the number of individuals in the population is defined as which characteristic of a disease?
Incidence rate
The ratio of the disease among the exposed population to the disease rate in an unexposed population is referred to as what type of risk?
Relative
Empirical risks for most multifactorial diseases are based on:
Direct observation
The BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations increase the risk of which cancer in women?
Ovarian
Which type of cancer is said to aggregate among families?
Breast
What percentage of all cases of breast cancer are identified as an autosomal dominant form?
5
When a woman has one first-degree relative with breast cancer, her risk of developing breast cancer is how many times greater?
2
Which dietary lifestyle choice has been associated with a decreased risk for developing colon cancer?
Decreased consumption of foods high in fat
Prader-Willi syndrome causes a chromosomal defect that is:
Inherited from the father
A malfunction in DNA methylation can lead to:
Cancer
When microRNA (miRNA) are methylated their messenger RNA (mRNA) targets are over-expressed, the resulting effect on existing cancer would be:
Metastasis
Hypomethylation and the resulting effect on oncogenes result in a(an):
Increase in tumor progression from benign to malignant
What are tumor cell markers?
Hormones, enzymes, antigens, and antibodies that are produced by cancer cells
The function of the tumor cell marker is to:
Screen individuals at high risk for cancer.
Which statement supports the hypothesis that intestinal polyps are benign neoplasms and the first stage in the development of colon cancer?
An accumulation of mutations in specific genes is required for the development of cancer.
What are characteristics of benign tumors?
Benign tumors include the suffix -oma.
Which terms represent the correct nomenclature for benign and malignant tumors of adipose tissue, respectively?
Lipoma, liposarcoma
Which statement concerning benign tumors is true?
The cells are well-differentiated.
Carcinoma in situ is characterized by which changes?
Cells remain localized in the glandular or squamous cells.
It has been determined that a tumor is in stage 2. What is the meaning of this finding?
Cancer is locally invasive.
Which statement is true regarding pain and cancer?
Pain is generally associated with late-stage cancer
The survival rate for stage IV Hodgkin disease can be as high as:
70%
What is the role of caretaker genes?
Maintenance of genomic integrity
In a normal, nonmutant state, an oncogene is referred to as a:
Proto-oncogene
Which environmental factors have been shown to have greatest significant effect on the frequency of genetic mutations in humans? (3)
Tobacco, radiation exposure, and obesity
Research has shown a link between cancer and which sexually transmitted disease?
HPV
Research supports the premise that exercise has a probable impact on reducing the risk of which cancer?
Colon
Which cancers pose the highest risk for radiologists?
Leukemia
Which substance has been shown to increase the risk of cancer when used in combination with tobacco smoking?
Alcohol
Research has supported that alcohol consumption has a convincing impact on increasing the risk of which cancer?
Pharynx
What congenital malformation is commonly linked to acute leukemia in children?
Down Syndrome
Which form of cancer is linked to congenital malformation syndromes?
Wilms tumor
Currently, what percentage of children with cancer can be cured?
80%
Which intervention has the greatest affect on a child’s mortality rate when diagnosed with cancer?
Participation in clinical trials.
