past paper questions

Question 1

name the three stages in development of attachments identified by Schaffer

Answer 1

•discriminate
•multiple
•pre-attachment

Question 2

briefly evaluate learning theory as an explanation of attachment

Answer 2

•strengths: plausible and scientific as founded in an established theory (likely that association between the provision of needs and the person providing those needs can lead to strong attachments; reinforcers clearly delineated
•limitations: reductionist- the focus on basic processes (reinforcement) too simplistic to explain complex attachment behaviours; environmentally deterministic such that early learning determined later attachment behaviours; theory founded in animal research and problems of interfering on the basis of animal studies
•schaffer and emerson- half of infants not attached to their primary caregiver
•harlow’s rhesus monkeys attached for comfort over food
•alternative explanations- Bowlby

Question 3

discuss research into the influence of early attachment on adult relationships (AO1)

Answer 3

•Bowlby’s internal working model- early attachment provides a blueprint for later (adult) attachment; formation of mental representation/ scheme of first attachment relationship; affects layer relationships and own success as a parent
•knowledge of studies that support or refute the relationship (Hazen and Shaver)

Question 4

discuss research into the influence of early attachment on adult relationships (AO3)

Answer 4

•discussion of theory, eg Bowlby’s IWM and issue of determinism; negative implications of assumption that the relationship is cause and effect
•discussion of underpinning evidence re measuring adult attachment type and/ or methodological evaluation of studies that demonstrate a relationship and how this effects the conclusions to be drawn (difficulty of establishing cause and effect between early attachment history and adult relationships)
•counter-evidence, to suggest that children can recover from deprivation and form effective adult relationships
•ethical issues

Question 5

briefly discuss how researchers might address difficulties encountered when trying to investigate caregiver- infant interactions

Answer 5

•problems of context affecting behaviour- research should take place in a natural setting (eg a child’s home to increase validity)
•most research is observational so bias may occur in observer interpretation (may be countered by using more than one observer, increasing inter-observer reliability)
•practical issues (eg a need for fewer but shorter observation periods because of limited walking periods)
•taking extra care in relation to ethics so as not to affect child/ parent in any way (protection from harm, confidentiality)

Question 6

discuss the effects of institutionalisation. refer to the studies of roman orphans in your answer.

Answer 6

•bowlby- affectionless psychopathy, delinquency (44 thieves study), low IQ
•harlow’s findings of delinquency, affectionless behaviour
•Rutter, Bucharest project
•evidence that the effects can be overcome with adequate substitute care
•lack of random allocation

Question 7

distinguish between insecure-avoidant and secure attachments

Answer 7

•secure attachment shows moderate levels of stranger anxiety whereas insecure-avoidant shows low levels
•secure attachment shows moderate levels of separation anxiety whereas insecure-avoidant shows low levels
•secure shows joy on reunion whereas insecure-avoidant shows little response
•secure shoes use of attachment figure as a safe base whereas insecure-avoidant shows high levels of independent behaviour

Question 8

suggest one way in which studies of attachment could be improved by using controlled observations

Answer 8

•controlled observations can minimise extraneous variables
•controlled observations are likely to have standardised procedures, so reliability/ replication is more of a possibility than in naturalistic observations
•cause and effect relationships are easier to establish than a naturalistic observation

Question 9

discuss research into caregiver- infant interactions in humans

Answer 9

•reciprocity-two way interaction between caregiver and child. turn taking/ mirroring; interactional synchrony
•imitation
•Meltzoff and More
•controlled observations, inter observer reliability
•infants intention is difficult to determine
•socially sensitive research

Question 10

outline differences in attachment behaviours shown by infants who have an insecure-avoidant attachment and infants who have an insecure-resistant attachment

Answer 10

•level of separation anxiety- low (avoidant) vs high (resistant)
•level of stranger anxiety- low (avoidant) vs high (resistant)
•response on reunion- indifference (avoidant) vs ambivalence (resistant)
•proximity seeking- low/ independent behaviour (avoidant) vs high/ clingy (resistant)

Question 11

evaluate the procedure known as the ‘Strange Situation’

Answer 11

•controlled observation lacks ecological validity
•standardised procedure allows for replication
•sole focus on the mother-child relationship
•evidence, Bick, suggests inter-relater reliability is high
•culture bound test (western culture)
•original study used only three attachment types
•procedure may measure something other than attachment type (temperament)
•discussion of the ethics of the study

Question 12

give an example of a statistical test

Answer 12

Chi-squared test

Question 13

what is the Chi-squared test?

Answer 13

a chi-squared test is a statistical hypothesis test used in the analysis of contingency tables when the sample sizes are large. In simpler terms, this test is primarily used to examine whether two categorical variables are independent in influencing the test statistic.

Question 14

why do people use the chi-square test?

Answer 14

The purpose of this test is to determine if a difference between observed data and expected data is due to chance, or if it is due to a relationship between the variables you are studying

Question 15

under what circumstances can the chi-square test be used?

Answer 15

•test of difference
•independent design
•nominal/ categorical data

Question 16

discuss the influence of early attachment on childhood relationships

Answer 16

•bowlby’s internal working models early attachment provides blueprint for later attachment; formation of mental representation/ scheme of first attachment relationship; affects later relationships during childhood
•attachment type associated with quality of peer relationships in childhood- studies of friendship patterns, bullying
•Hazen and Shaver
•negative implications of assumption that the relationship is cause and effect
•self-report techniques
•difficulty of measuring the IWM- hypothetical concept

Question 17

outline one example of cultural variation in attachment

Answer 17

•higher rates of anxious/ insecure- resistant attachments in collectivist cultures, eg Japan (Van Ijzendoorn and Kroononberg)

Question 18

explain how, according to attachment research, Lenny’s early experience might have influenced his later relationships (and caused him to have an insecure-avoidant attachment)

Answer 18

•Bowlby’s internal working model- the lack of early attachment has not provided an adequate template/ blueprint for later relationships
•insecure attachments are associated with fear of intimacy/ lack of commitment in adult romantic relationships which may explain his inability to ‘settle down’
•maternal depravation theory- disruption to the maternal bond in early life (critical period) leads to later emotional problems like a fear of commitment/ intimacy
•Hazen and Shaver- love quiz

Question 19

outline Lorenz’s and Harlow’s animal studies of attachment. Discuss what these studies might tell us about human attachment (16)

Answer 19

•Lorenz- goose eggs randomly divided; half hatched w mother present (in a natural environment); half in an incubator with Lorenz present; behaviour recorded; incubator group followed Lorenz, control group followed the mother; concepts of imprinting and critical period
•Harlow- in a controlled environment, infant monkeys reared with two mother surrogates; plain wife mother dispensing food, cloth-covered mother with no food; time spent with each mother was recorded; details of fear conditions; long-term effect recorded, relationship with offspring, preferred comfort over food
•lorenz sexual behaviour/ imprinting
- problems of generalisation
- implications of imprinting/ critical period for human attachment (and contradictory research)
- implications of early neglect
- ‘sensitive’ not critical period
- practical value of research, social work
- support from human studies

Question 20

Explain one reason why it is difficult to draw conclusions about the file of caregiver- infant interactions in the development of attachment

Answer 20

you cannot establish cause and effect given that you cannot manipulate the quality of the attachment and it could have been influenced by many external factors like life events or the environment